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Horatio Nelson. 



Wherever brave deeds are treasured and told, 

In the tales of the deeds of yore, 
Like jewels of price in a chain of gold 

Are the name and the fame he bore." 



A SCHOOL HISTORY 



OF 



ENGLAND 



BY 

HARMON B. NIVER, A.B. 

Teacher in New York City Public Schools 




NEW YORK*. -CINCINNATI*. -CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



LIB»»»wv -< nONORESS 
Two Oowes R#r«ved 

AUG 30 1904 

Gowrlffht Entry 

CLASS *- XXo. N<x 

fr ") 0[ f 4- 
COPY B 




Copyright, 1904, by 
HARMON B. NIVER. 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 



Niver's School History of England 
W. P. 1. 



• • • 



PEEFACE. 



The purpose of this book is to furnish a narrative history 
of England for use in the higher grades of the elementary 
schools. It traces not only the growth of those principles of 
liberty and self-government which are the common heritage 
of the Anglo-Saxon race, but also the gradual development 
of the British Empire and its rise to the front rank of the 
world's manufacturing and commercial powers. 

In the selection of materials an attempt has been made 
to excite an interest that shall stimulate the pupil to a search 
for further knowledge. To this end there is given, in the 
appendix, a list of books easily accessible, some of which 
should be in every class-room where English history is taught. 
It is a good rule never to read less than two accounts of the 
same event. This provides training in comparison, discrim- 
ination, and judgment, thereby accomplishing the main 
objects of historical study. The questions and topics for home 
reading that are appended to each section are intended to 
encourage independent thought and to supplement the work 
of the class-room. 

The pupil should not be asked to memorize paragraphs, 
but to discover the topics of which they treat, and to expand 
these in his own language. If this practice is persevered in, 
he will soon acquire facility in the process of gathering ideas 
from the printed page, and in writing and talking about 
them afterward. The possession of such power is the basis 
of all historical study. 




^i^g 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter Page 

I. Britain before 449 a.d 9 

II. Anglo-Saxon England 26 

III. England under Norman Kings .56 

IV. The Early Plantagenet Kings 75 

V. The Later Plantagenet Kings 102 

VI. The Houses of Lancaster and York 133 

VII. The House of Tudor 156 

VIII. The Stuart Kings and Cromwell 203 

IX. The Stuart Kings and Orange 242 

X. The House of Hanover (1714-1763) 284 

XI. The House of Hanover (1763-1837) 308 

XII. The House of Hanover (1837—) 359 

Appendix : Chronological Table i 

Books for Reference vii 

Index viii 

GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 

Kings of England . . 37, 48, 56, 75, 102, 133, 146, 156, 203, 284 



PRINCIPAL MAPS. 

County Map of England England in Wars of the 

and Wales . . . . 6, 7 Roses 144 

Roman Britain .... 24 Europe in the Sixteenth 

Britain in 584, during the Century 164 

Anglo-Saxon Conquest . 30 England in the Civil War . 226 

England in 878, after the Ireland 232 

treaty of Wedmore . . 42 India 298 

Dominions of Henry II. . . 76 Eastern North America in 

Scotland 106 1754 303 

France in the Hundred Europe in 1795 .... 326 

Years' War . . . .114 The British Empire . 400,401 

8 



A SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

I. BKITAIN BEFOKE 449 A. D. 
A. Early Britain". 

The English Race to-day occupies or controls a fourth 
of the land surface of the globe. Eour hundred years ago, 
it held only part of the island of Great Britain. We are to 
learn in this book how the English have gone out from their 
island home into foreign countries to plant colonies and to 
build up the British Empire. 

Britain, in the earliest times, was a forest wilderness inhab- 
ited by savage tribes. We shall study the changes by which 
it has become a manufacturing and commercial country, the 
seat of great cities, and the home of wealth and learning. 

We Study English History because our own country 
was for over a century part of the British Empire. The thir- 
teen American colonies were settled chiefly by English people, 
who brought from the mother country their language, cus- 
toms, laws, and forms of government. English history, there- 
fore, includes the early history of our own race and nation. 
If we seek to know why the American people elect their 
own rulers and make their own laws, we shall find an answer 
in the fact that our remote ancestors, the savage Angles and 
Saxons of the North German forests, did these very things. 
When they settled in Britain and became Englishmen, we find 
them still governing their own towns, voting taxes, and elect- 
ing the king. 

9 



10 



BRITAIN BEFORE 449 A. D. 



Under the strong rule of some of their kings, the people 
lost their power for a time; but they succeeded in getting 
back what they had lost. King John was compelled to grant 
the Great Charter, assuring to the people many of the rights 
and liberties that we enjoy to-day. The Anglo-Saxon spirit 
of liberty and independence has triumphed over every attempt 
at tyranny, until we have now in both England and America 
what Abraham Lincoln called " a government of the people, 
for the people, and by the people." 



BRITISH,! j',^^,,,^ /r 
rf^W'*^ NORTH 4ffi 




Europe in Early Times. 



The British Isles, consisting of two large islands and 
many smaller ones, are separated from the mainland of 
Europe by a narrow but stormy and dangerous channel. 
This channel has often served as a defense against enemies, 
and has enabled the English to live in their own way without 
being disturbed by many of the wars in Europe. Shake- 
speare, in his play " Eichard II.," calls his country 



EARLY BRITAIN 11 

"This royal throne of kings, this sceptered isle, 
This fortress, built by Nature for herself, 
Against infection and the hand of war; 
This happy breed of men, this little world, 
This precious stone set in the silver sea, 
Which serves it in the office of a wall, 
Or as a moat defensive to a house, 
Against the envy of less happier lands; 
This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England." 



The islands belong to the class known as "continental 
islands/' meaning that they were once joined to the mainland 
of Europe. The sea cliffs of Dover and Calais are made of 
the same white, chalky material, and the strait between them 
is less than two hundred feet deep. 

On the bottom of the shallow seas surrounding Britain 
are often found the bones of the same land animals whose 
remains have been dug up on the neighboring coasts. These 
animals could not have crossed by water from the continent 
to Britain, so we must believe that these islands were once 
a part of the mainland. 

The mild climate and the natural resources of Great 
Britain have well fitted it to become the home of a great 
and progressive nation. Navigable rivers lead well into 
the interior, and the mountains contain vast supplies of 
coal, iron, copper, and tin. The upper waters of the riv- 
ers are rapid enough to turn the wheels of mills, and the 
deep and numerous estuaries along the coast afford safe 
harbors. 

The Earliest Races in Britain made no written records. 
We can judge of their character only by the tools and weapons 
which they have left. In the gravel washed down by 
rivers, in shell heaps along the coast, and in caves where 
these early savages made their homes, are found, besides rude 
pottery, stone knives, scrapers, arrow and spear heads, and 
axes. Some of these implements were roughly shaped by hit- 



12 



BRITAIN BEFORE 449 A. D. 




Rough Stone 
Arrowheads. 



ting one stone upon another; others were ground into more 
exact form and were fitted for handles. 

The Stone Age. The races that lived upon the earth 
before written history begins are named according to the 

works that they have left. Thus we 
have in Britain an "Age of Eough 
Stone/' an "Age of Polished Stone/' 
and an " Age of Bronze." 

It is plain from the nature of their 
tools and weapons that the men of the 
Eough Stone Age were rude savages 
who lived by hunting and fishing, and 
on plants, berries, and roots. Their homes were caves, 
where we still find their skeletons mingled with the remains 
of animals that were killed 
for food. 

The savage of the Pol- 
ished Stone Age made a 
hut by digging a hole in 
the earth and roofing it 
with boughs of trees covered with slabs of baked clay. He 
tamed animals, cultivated the soil, and made rude pottery 

and coarse cloth. He had some 
idea of religion and a future 
life, since we find in the mounds, 
or "barrows," where he buried 




Polished Stone Ax. 




his dead, weapons, tools, and 
various dishes for food and drink, 
which it was supposed would be 
needed after death. The men of 
this age were warlike. The 
earlier savage with his club and flint knife retreated before 
the newcomer with his bow and arrow, spear, and ax. The 
savages of this later Stone Age used rafts and canoes. We 



Pottery from Stone Age. 




EARLY BRITAIN 13 

think, therefore, that Britain was probably separated from 
the mainland at this time. 

The Celtic Race, a more civilized people, then came, armed 
with weapons of bronze. Many centuries before the birth of 
Christ, the Celts, fair-haired and taller than the earlier race, 
spread over western Europe. They had learned to smelt 
copper and tin, of which bronze is made, and to mold spear- 
heads and axes. Celtic tribes called Gael crossed into the 
British Isles and overcame the natives 
there, establishing themselves in clans or 
villages under chiefs. Later Celtic 
tribes called Britons, coming into Celtic period. 
"Albion," as Britain was then named, drove the Gael 
westward into Ireland and northward into Scotland, 
keeping the central and southeastern parts of Britain for 
themselves. 

It is in the time of these later Celtic tribes that the earliest 
written mention was made of the British Isles. Greek his- 
torians and geographers wrote of them as the " Tin Islands," 
three or four hundred years before Christ. The tin mines in 
Cornwall were worked by the Phoenicians in the days of King 
Solomon and of Hiram, King of Tyre. The source from which 
they obtained the metal was carefully kept secret. A ship 
belonging to Carthage, a Phoenician colony, was once followed 
by a Eoman captain who wished to learn the location of the 
mines. But the Carthaginian ran his vessel ashore on the 
coast of Gaul and wrecked it rather than reveal the secret. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How does commerce help to civilize a nation? 

2. Why are savage races more warlike than civilized ones? 

3. What do continental islands teach us about the earth ? 

4. How do we learn about nations who have left no written records? 

5. Distinguish savage, barbarous, semicivilized, and civilized nations. 



14 



BRITAIN BEFORE 449 A. D. 
TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 



[55 B. C. 



1. The Tin Mines of Britain. Lee, Source Book of English History, 

pp. 70-72; Colby, Selections from the Sources of English His- 
tory, pp. 3-6. 

2. Remains of Early Races in Britain. Gardiner, Studenfs His- 

tory of England, pp. 1-10; Creasy, Rise and Progress of the 
English Constitution, Ch. II. 




B. The Eomans in Britain, 55 b. c. to 410 a. d. 

Julius Caesar, the great Eoman general, has given us 
the best information that we have of the early Britons. The 

Eomans of his time ruled most of the 
countries bordering on the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, and were the greatest civil- 
ized nation in the world. Caesar was 
made governor of the Eoman provinces 
near the Alps, and in four years he con- 
quered the Gauls and extended the 
Eoman rule throughout their country 
from the Alps to the English Channel. 

The First Invasion of Britain. The 
Gauls, like the Britons, were of the Celt- 
ic race, and in the wars with Caesar the Britons had come to 
the help of their relatives south of the Channel. Caesar re- 
solved to teach them that it was dangerous to oppose the 
Eomans. He was an author as well as a general, and wrote 
an account of his wars in Gaul and Britain. He tells us 
that in the year 55 B. o. he set sail with ten thousand men 
and a hundred ships, and, on the following morning, 
approached the white cliffs of Dover. He found the heights 
crowned with multitudes of armed Britons, who with loud 
cries and threatening gestures opposed his landing. As the 
coast was rocky, he sailed eight miles eastward, to a sandy 
beach that offered an easy approach. The Britons followed 



Julius Caesar. 



55 B. 0.] 



THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN 



15 




Roman War Ship. 



along the coast with their war chariots and horses. Great 
numbers of them, armed with bronze axes, spears, and bows 
and arrows, tried to prevent the Eomans from reaching the 
shore. Here is 
Caesar's account of 
the landing: 
" While our men 
were hesitating on 
account of the 
depth of the sea, 
he who carried the 
eagle of the tenth 
legion cried out, 
' Leap, fellow-sol- 
diers, unless you wish to betray your eagle to the enemy. 
I for my part will perform my duty to the republic and my 
general/ When he had said this with a loud voice, he leaped 
from the ship and carried the standard toward the enemy. 
Then our men, urging one another not to bring disgrace upon 
the army, all leaped from the ship. When those in the near- 
est vessels saw them, they speedily followed and approached 
the enemy. The battle was fought vigorously on both sides." 
The Britons on horseback attacked the invaders as they were 
wading through the water, but the Eomans made their way to 
the shore, and as soon as they got a firm footing on dry 
ground, they put the Britons to flight. 

The Britons were so much impressed by the bravery of the 
Eomans that in a day or two they sent envoys to ask for 
peace. This Csesar was ready to grant, but he demanded, as 
a pledge for their good behavior in the future, that some of 
their chiefs remain in his camp. Some hostages were given 
at once, but the Britons explained that others were in distant 
parts of the country, and it would take a few days to bring 
them. 



16 BRITAIN BEFORE 449 A. D. [55 B. C. 

In the mean time, misfortunes came upon the Eomans. 
The ships containing the cavalry were driven back to Gaul by 
a storm ; some of the vessels on the shore were wrecked by the 
high tides; and the Britons attacked and killed some of the 
soldiers sent out to collect food. A large force of Britons also 
gathered near the Eoman camp. Caesar made a vigorous at- 
tack on them, and pursued them to one of their villages, which 
he burned. Again came envoys to the Eoman camp, asking 
peace. Caesar again granted it, but asked for twice as many 
hostages as before. He did not wait to receive them, how- 
ever, but returned hastily to Gaul. He had accomplished lit- 
tle during his three weeks' stay in Britain, and had not ad- 
vanced more than a mile from the shore. 

The Second Invasion. During the winter Caesar gath- 
ered a large force of soldiers, . and in July of the following 
year came sailing toward the British coast with eight hun- 
dred ships carrying 25,000 foot soldiers and 2,000 horsemen. 
When the Britons saw this great fleet approaching, they fled 
to the woods in terror. Caesar's men landed, and pursued 
them to a fort in which they had taken refuge. This was a 
woodland surrounded by a wall of earth and a deep ditch. 
The Eomans captured the fort and afterwards fought many 
battles with the Britons, but did not do them any serious 
injury. 

The Britons were led by a famous chief, Caswallon, or 
" Cassivelaunus " as the Eomans wrote his name. Seeing the 
superiority of the Eoman soldiers, he prudently retreated 
when the battle went against him. This chief had subdued 
many of the neighboring tribes, who now, in the hope of re- 
gaining their freedom, joined the Eomans. Five of these 
tribes went with Caesar to attack Caswallon's town north of 
the Thames. This they captured with a great number of 
cattle, which was the chief wealth of the tribe. Caswallon 
now surrendered to Caesar, gave him a large number of hos- 



54 B. C] 



THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN 



17 



tages, and promised to pay a yearly tribute and not to molest 
the tribes who had made friends with the Eomans. 

As some of the tribes in Gaul had revolted, Caesar soon re- 
turned to that country, thinking he had frightened the Britons 
enough to prevent their sending any more help to his foes 
across the Channel. 

Caesar's Account of the Britons shows that he was a 
careful observer. " The people are numerous," he says, " be- 
yond all counting, and their buildings very numerous; the 
number of their cattle is great. They use brass or iron 
rings, of a fixed weight, for money. Tin is produced in the 
interior regions, and iron along the seacoast ; but the quantity 
of it is small. They have timber of every description, ex- 
cept the beech and fir. The climate is more temperate than 
in Gaul. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow grain, 
but live on milk and flesh, and are clad 
with skins. All the Britons dye them- 
selves with woad, which makes a bluish 
color, and gives them a terrible appearance 
in fight. They wear their hair long and 
shave all the body except the head and 
upper lip." 

But what astonished Caesar most was 
their manner of fighting, and their cour- 
age and daring in battle. If their weap- 
ons and discipline had been equal to those 
of the Romans, Caesar might not have been 
able even to make a landing upon their ^ 
shores. Each Briton had a long sword z~J 
and a dagger, made of copper or bronze, Roman Soldier. 
and carried a small round shield of wickerwork covered with 
raw hide. But the bronze weapons were not very sharp, and 
would bend easily. On the other hand, the Eoman carried a 
short two-edged sword of tempered Spanish steel, and a spear 





18 BRITAIN BEFORE 449 A. D. [54 B. C. 

about six feet in length, tipped with a long steel point. For 
defensive armor, he wore a steel helmet, breastplate, and armor 
for the legs, and carried a light but strong shield large enough 
to protect the whole body. The Eoman army was trained 
to perfect obedience to a single leader, while the Britons were 

led by separate chiefs who 
often were at war with one 
another and were not will- 
ing to unite against the 
h common enemy. 

The War Chariots were 
the most effective part of 

the Britons' equipment. 
British War Chariot. Thege wepe br0&( ^ ^ twQ _ 

wheeled carts, which would carry a driver and several war- 
riors. They had long, hooked scythes fastened to the axles 
or corners, and sticking out on both sides. The horses were 
so well trained that they could be driven at furious speed over 
the roughest ground and into the ranks of the enemy, cutting 
down everything that came near them. The warriors, who 
wore no armor, would leap down and fight skillfully on foot, 
while the chariot was driven off to one side. If they were 
getting the worst of the fight, they would run swiftly to the 
chariot and drive away again, while the Eoman soldiers, 
burdened with heavy armor, could not pursue them. 

British Life and Industries. The Briton built his home 
by setting rough logs on end for the walls, in the form of 
either a circle or a square. On these walls of logs, poles were 
placed for rafters and bound together at the top. A roof was 
made of interlacing boughs covered with rushes or turf. The 
fire was built upon the ground, and a hole in the roof allowed 
the smoke to escape. The family slept around the fire on 
beds of straw or rushes covered with skins. 

The Britons knew little of navigation. The only craft 



54 B. C] 



THE BRITONS 



19 



they used to any extent was the coracle, made by fastening 
the skins of animals to a frame of wickerwork. It is said 
that they also built a few larger boats of oak, using skins for 
sails. 

Like the American Indians, the Britons were fond of orna- 
ments and bright-colored cloths. They obtained these things, 
as well as their weapons, from the Gauls in exchange for their 
cattle and grain. 




|^^S|^^S| 



'<LUMMM^ 



it ^ 



■yss'^r- 



Stonehenge : Ruins op a Druid Temple. 



Religion; the Druids. The Britons worshiped many 
gods, very much like those of the Eomans. They had a god 
of war, a god of medicine, and gods of the trees, streams, and 
sky. Their religious teachers were called " Druids," from a 
word meaning " oak tree." The oak and the mistletoe were 
sacred to them. The Druids held their religious services in 
oak groves, and taught their pupils sitting at the foot of some 
gnarled old oak. They thought their war god could be 
pleased only by human sacrifices, so they would pen up a large 
number of men and women in a huge wicker cage and set it 
on fire. They taught that the soul is immortal, and at death 
passes into another body. 
Caesar tells us that the Druids were doctors and astronomers 



20 BRITAIN BEFORE 449 A. D. [54 B. C. 

as well as teachers and priests. They knew something about 
the iise of plants in diseases, and had " much to say about the 
stars and their motions, about the size of the heavens and the 
earth, and about nature and the power of the gods." 

There is a famous old ruin near Salisbury, in southern 
England, called " Stonehenge " or " the hanging stones," 
which is thought to be the remains of a Druid temple. It 
was open to the sky and composed of two circles of upright 
stone slabs with other stones laid across the tops of them. 

When Caesar Returned to Eome, there was great rejoicing 
over his successful wars in Gaul and Britain, and the Eoman 
Senate ordered a grand thanksgiving of twenty days in his 
honor. There was also great rejoicing among the Britons at 
his departure, and you may be sure that the tribute King 
Caswallon promised to pay was never sent. After Caesar had 
made himself master of the Eoman Eepublic, he was mur- 
dered in the Senate Hall at Eome, and a great civil war arose 
between his friends and the friends of the old republic, which 
ended in making Eome an empire. The Eomans were so 
busy with these and other matters at home, that it was nearly 
a century before they came again to Britain. 

The Third Roman Invasion came in 43 a. d., under a 
general named Plautius, who was sent by the Emperor Clau- 
dius. Caradoc, or Caractacus, great-grandson of Caswallon, 
was then the ruling British chief. After nine years of bloody 
fighting, Caradoc was made prisoner, taken to Eome, and led 
in chains through the streets. As he saw the splendid build- 
ings and the wealth of the capital city of the world, he 
exclaimed : " Strange that they who have such splendid pos- 
sessions, should envy us our poor huts ! " He was set at lib- 
erty by Claudius, but was not allowed to return to his native 
country. 

It is said of the Eomans that wherever they conquered, they 
went to live, and so they now began to establish colonies in 



61 A. D.] 



THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN 



21 




Britain. Colchester and London were settled by Eoman sol- 
diers, who built fine houses and temples, established Eoman 
laws and government, and introduced the Latin language and 
the worship of the Eoman gods. During the first century 
a. d. the Eomans built nearly fifty walled cities in different 
parts of the country. 



Soldiers were kept in 
them ready to check any 
attempt of the Britons to 
regain their freedom. 
You will find on the map 
of England many towns 
whose names end in 
" cester," " Chester," or 
" coin," such as Glouces- 
ter, Winchester, and Lin- RoMAN masonry at Lincoln. 
coin. At every such place we may know that the Eomans 
once had a settlement, for these endings come from the Latin 
words castra, meaning a military camp, and colonia, the word 
for colony. 

Suetonius was a Eoman general sent in 58 to govern 
Britain. He found that the Druids, who had gathered in 
their sacred groves on the island of Anglesey, were encoura- 
ging the young Britons to rise against the Eomans and get 
back their freedom. So Suetonius landed on the island, put 
many of them to the sword, and burned others in their own 
altar fires. The Eomans governed the people harshly and 
taxed them to the utmost, in order to get money to build fine 
houses, baths, and temples for themselves. But the poor 
Britons lived in mud hovels, and had to serve in the army and 
do all the hard work. 

Boadicea, the widow of a British chief, was robbed of the 
property left her by her husband, and she and her daughters 
were shamefully scourged and abused. The English poet 

NlVER 2. 



22 BRITAIN BEFORE 449 A. D. [61 A. D. 

William Cowper has described Boadicea's interview with a 
Druid: 

" When the British warrior-queen, 
Bleeding from the Roman rods, 
Sought with an indignant mien 
Counsel of her country's gods, 

" Sage, beneath a spreading oak, 
Sat the Druid, hoary chief, 
Every burning word he spoke 
Full of rage and full of grief. 

" ' Rome shall perish, — write that word 
In the blood that she has spilt ; 
Perish, hopeless and abhorred, 
Deep in ruin as in guilt. 

" ' Rome, for empire far renowned, 
Tramples on a thousand states ; 
Soon her pride shall kiss the ground — ■ 
Hark ! the Gaul is at her gates.' " 

Boadicea roused the people by telling the story of her 
wrongs, and, gathering an army, attacked London and other 
Roman colonies. In a few days 70,000 Romans were slain. 
None were spared, but men, women, and children alike fell 
beneath the fury of the Britons. 

Suetonius had hurried back from his massacre of the 
Druids at Anglesey, but was forced to leave London to its 
fate in order to save his army. He chose his battle ground on 
a great plain, with a forest in the rear, having 10,000 men in 
all. There he was attacked by the Britons, 120,000 strong, 
led by Queen Boadicea in her chariot. On the level ground, 
the discipline and superior arms of the Romans gave them 
the advantage. With solid ranks they charged wedge-like 
into the multitude before them, the cavalry and light troops 
spreading out in the rear and protecting the flanks. The 
Britons turned and fled in confusion. Countless wagons 
filled with their women, who had come to witness a. victory, 



410 A. D.] THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN 23 

blocked their way, and 80,000 of them were slain. Boadicea 
poisoned herself. The cause of the Britons was lost forever. 

Results of Roman Conquest. The revolt of the Britons 
resulted in securing better treatment from the Roman gov- 
ernors. Suetonius, who had allowed his officers to plunder 
the people, was at once recalled, and we hear no more of 
Roman injustice. The task of the Romans now was to secure 
the land against the savages on the borders, especially the 
Gaelic tribes called Picts and Scots. The Picts made at- 
tacks from Scotland, and the Scots from Ireland (map, p. 24) . 

To keep off the northern invaders, the Roman governor 
Agricola built a chain of forts connecting the Clyde and the 
Forth in Scotland. The Emperor Hadrian visited Britain 
in 119 a. d. and, fearing that the Picts would break through 
Agricola's chain of forts, built a wall of earth between the 
Solway and the Tyne as a second line of defense. This was 
strengthened later by a wall of solid masonry, about eight feet 
wide and fifteen feet high, built just north of the earthen 
wall. This famous stone wall was 73 miles long. Parts of 
it still exist. Under the Emperor Antoninus another wall, 
of earth, was thrown up on the line of Agricola's forts. 

In order to move their armies rapidly from place to place, 
the Romans built many roads, one extending the whole length 
of Hadrian's wall, and others connecting the various colonies 
and military camps. During the third century of Roman 
rule the eastern shore was troubled more and more by the 
attacks of the Saxons, who came over sea to plunder. To 
guard against their attacks, a watch tower and fort were built 
at every convenient landing, and placed under the command of 
a special officer who had the title " Count of the Saxon Shore." 

The Romans Leave Britain. During the rule of the 
Romans, all these forts, walls, and military defenses of every 
sort were garrisoned by soldiers. But the Germanic tribes, 
of which the Saxons were one, attacked the Roman Empire 



24 



BRITAIN BEFQRE 449 A. D. 



[410 




Chief Roads and Towns of Roman Beitain. 
and finally overthrew it. In trying to defend Rome, the 
Emperors withdrew their troops from the outlying provinces. 
In 410, the last of the Eomans left Britain, and never after 
that did they set foot on her soil. 



446] THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN 25 

During the Eoman rule, Christianity took the place of the 
pagan worship of the Britons. It was first brought to the 
island probably by soldiers and merchants who had been con- 
verted in Rome. After the Emperor Constantine (306-337) 
became a Christian, the new faith was spread rapidly as the 
religion of the Empire. 

While the Britons learned much that was valuable from 
the Romans, they lost their warlike spirit and became de- 
pendent upon the leadership of others. And now, after the 
departure of the Eoman garrisons, when their enemies began 
to swarm down upon them, they wrote to Aetius, the com- 
mander of the Eoman army, a beseeching letter which they 
called " The Groans of the Britons." " The barbarians," they 
said, " drive us into the sea ; the sea drives us back to the 
barbarians; between them, we are exposed to two sorts of 
death; we are either slain or drowned." But no help could 
the Eomans send them, and before long the fierce Saxons and 
their brother tribes ruled Eoman and Briton alike. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How did Csesar show his skill as a general? 

2. What was the Roman method of holding a conquered country? 

3. Compare the Roman and British modes of fighting. 

4. Compare the religion of the Britons with that of other heathen na- 

tions. What objects are usually worshiped by primitive races? 

5. What facts show the state of civilization among the Britons in the 

time of Caesar? Contrast this with the Roman civilization. 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Roman Rule in Britain. Henty, Beric, the Briton; Windle, 

Life in Early Britain. 

2. Compare the Civilization of the Early Britons with that 

of the American Indians. Csesar, Gallic War, Bk. IV., Ch. 
30-37 ; C. W. Colby, Sources of English History, pp. 3-6. 

3. Boadicea. Church, Stories from English History, Ch. V. ; Rolfe, 

Tales from English History, pp. 1-2. 

4. The Druids. Church, Early Britain, pp. 7-10, 48-49; Harper's 

Stories of English History, pp. 3-6. 



II. ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND, 449-1066. 



A. The Coming of the Anglo-Saxons. 




SCALE O F MILES 

5 nxr 



Early Home and Customs. The Britons and their neigh- 
bors, the Picts and Scots, belonged to the Celtic race. But 

the Angles and Sax- 
ons, who invaded and 
conquered their land 
and laid the founda- 
tions of England, were 
of a different stock. 
They were Low Ger- 
mans; that is, they 
lived in the low parts 
of Germany bordering 

Early Homes of the English. Qn the -$ 0T ftl and Bal- 

tic seas. They were much like the Dutch people of to-day in 
race and language. 

We have learned that Caesar wrote a description of the 
Britons. In like manner, a Eoman historian, Tacitus, made 
a study of the German tribes, which is the best account we 
have of these ancestors of the English. He says that the Ger- 
mans had no regular cities, but that each one settled by him- 
self as "woodside, plain, or fresh spring attracted him." It 
was the custom of the chief to divide the land each year among 
his warriors, lest by living too long in one place they should 
become less hardy and active for war. 

Each village, composed of independent farmers, was sur- 
rounded by a belt of waste land or forest, which separated it 
from the neighboring tribes. On the inside of this belt was 

26 



100 A. D.] 



THE ANGLES AND SAXONS 



27 



a ditch and rude fence called the tun, from which comes our 
word " town." This served as a fortification in case of war. 

Within the village were three classes of people. The largest 
was the ceorls, or churls, described as the " free " men, or the 
" weaponed " men ; for no free man, says Tacitus, " ever 
transacts business, public or private, unless fully armed." An- 
other class was the eorls, or earls, who were of noble blood, and 
were held in great reverence. From this class, chiefs were 




A Saxon Home. 

chosen in time of war, and rulers in time of peace. Besides 
these two classes there were in every village a small number 
of thralls, or slaves, who could be bought and sold at the mas- 
ter's pleasure. They were persons who had been captured in 
the frequent wars of those days, and who had not been ran- 
somed. 

When laws were to be made, or war entered upon, all the 
freemen assembled in a tungemot or town meeting. Says Tac- 



28 THE ANGLES AND SAXONS [100 A. D. 

itus, " Each man takes his place completely armed. Silence 
is proclaimed by the priests. The chief of the community 
opens the debate; the rest are heard in their turn, according 
to age, nobility of descent, renown in war, or fame for elo- 
quence. If anything is advanced not agreeable to the people, 
they reject it with a. general murmur. If any proposition 
pleases them, they nourish their spears, for this is their high- 
est mark of applause, to praise by the sound of their arms." 

These German tribes worshiped heathen gods, as taught 
by their priests and singers. The English names for four of 
the days of the week are derived from the names of some of 
their gods. Wednesday is the day of Woden, the great war- 
god, from whom the kings and chiefs claimed descent. 
Thursday is Trior's day; Friday is Freya's day; and Tuesday 
is named for Tiu, the god of death. 

War was the chief occupation of these tribes. It was 
counted disgraceful to get anything by peaceful industry that 
could be obtained by war ; and they believed that the warrior 
who fell with his face to the foe was carried at once by the 
" war-maidens " to the great hall of Woden to enjoy an eter- 
nity of fighting and feasting in the company of heroes. 

Csesar tells of a German army which had conquered part 
of Gaul and which, according to its leader, had not gone under 
a roof for fourteen years. Caesar drove this army back across 
the Ehine, which was for many years one of the boundaries 
of the Koman Empire; but in the end German strength and 
valor overcame even the Koman arms and discipline. 

How the Angles and Saxons came to Britain. This is the 
story told by the Britons : " Vortigern, King of Kent, see- 
ing that the Picts troubled him by land and the Saxons by 
sea, thought to himself, ' I shall do well if I can set these 
robbers, the one against the other/ So he said to Hengist, 
their chief, ' Let us make an alliance together ? ; and to this 
Hengist consented, and he made a feast to which he called 



449 A. D.] COMING OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS 29 

King Yortigern. Now Hengist had a daughter, Kowena, who 
was exceeding fair, and the maiden stood at the board and 
served the king with mead. When the king looked upon her, 
he loved her and he said to Hengist, for his reason had gone 
from him, ' Give me the maid to wife and I will give you the 
kingdom of Kent/ To this Hengist consented; but the 
nobles of the land would not have the stranger to rule over 
them. Therefore they put down Vortigern from his place 
and made Vortimer, his son, king in his stead. And Vortimer 
fought against Hengist and the Saxons till he drove them out 
of the land. Then for five years Hengist wandered over the 
sea in his ships. Vortimer died, and again Yortigern was 
made king. Then said Hengist to him, ' Give me the king- 
dom according to your promise/ Yortigern answered him, 
* Let me ask counsel of my nobles/ So the nobles assembled 
themselves, three hundred in all, and for every British noble 
there was also a Saxon chief. And as they sat together, 
Hengist cried aloud, ' Draw your daggers ! ' As he spoke, 
each Saxon smote the Briton that sat next to him and slew 
him. So the three hundred fell in one day, all save King 
Yortigern; for him they spared by command of Hengist. 
And after this, the strangers held the land without further 
question." 

Whether the strangers gained their first foothold through 
treachery, we do not know, but it is certain that they beat the 
Britons in many a fair fight afterward. It is also certain 
that the conquerors of Kent belonged to the tribe of Jutes, 
who were closely related to the Saxons. According to Saxon 
accounts, Yortigern gave some land to the Jute chiefs Hengist 
and Horsa, in the year 449, in return for aid against the 
Picts. The Jutes soon gained possession of all Kent; and 
the Angles and Saxons, hearing of this, were not long in 
conquering other parts of Britain. 

A band of Saxons " beset Anderida and slew all that were 



550] COMING OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS 31 

therein, nor was there afterward one Briton left" (491) ; and 
about this place grew up the kingdom of Sussex (land of the 
South Saxons). 

The founder of Wessex (West Saxon land) was Cerdic, who 
came first in 495 with five ships, and fought the Britons on the 
southern coast. Six years later, he came again and slew 
five thousand Britons. The West Saxons continued to push 
their conquests into the interior, until they were met at 
Badon Hill, near Bath, by a mighty king, named "Arthur," 
who ruled in Wales. On the second day of the battle, Arthur 
and his knights broke through the lines of the enemy and 
saved western Britain for a time. 

In the stories handed down by the Welsh bards, or singers, 
Arthur is celebrated as a king who united the warring chiefs 
of the Britons against the heathen invaders. 

" And still from time to time the heathen host 
Swarmed over seas and harried what was left. 
And so there grew great tracts of wilderness, 
Wherein the beast was ever more and more, 
But man was less and less, till Arthur came." 1 

According to the stories, Arthur made his residence at Caer- 
leon in Wales, where he lived in splendid state, gathering 
about him many brave knights and beautiful ladies. Twelve 
of the noblest and bravest of these knights sat with the king 
about the " Eound Table." These " Knights of the Eound 
Table " were wont to go out in search of adventures, to pro- 
tect women, chastise oppressors, chain up wicked giants and 
dwarfs, and drive back the heathen. And thus Arthur, hav- 
ing subdued the British chiefs, 

" Drew all their petty princedoms under him, 
Their king and head, and made a realm and reigned." 

But Arthur died, and his brave knights also passed away. 
The heathen Saxons took up arms again, and pressed the 

J See Tennyson's poem, " The Coming of Arthur." 



32 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [550 

Britons further back into the highlands on the north and 
west, where their descendants still tell the story of their early 
hero king. 

Meanwhile other Saxons had established themselves north 
of the Thames ; they were called East Saxons and their king- 
dom Essex. About this time some of them took the strong 
city of London, and their land was called Middlesex. 

During the Saxon conquests, the Angles were pouring in 
along the eastern coast, and finally established themselves in 
three leading kingdoms, — East Anglia, Mercia, and Nor- 
thumbria. About a century after the first invasion, therefore, 
we find seven or more Anglo-Saxon kingdoms established in 
Britain. 

As to the Britons, they were finally driven into Cornwall, 
Wales, and the mountains in the north. Large numbers 
of them fell in battle; probably some of them became the 
slaves of the invaders. We know little about their fate. The 
Angles and Saxons came upon them like a tidal wave and 
swept them from the face of the earth. In caves among the 
Yorkshire moorlands have been found coins, costly orna- 
ments, and elaborate sword hilts, such things as might be 
caught up hastily by people fleeing for their lives. Charred 
bones and other signs of cooking seem to show that these 
caves were for some time the homes of the fugitives. The 
very name of Briton disappeared, and the country was called 
"Angle-land," or England. 

Wars among the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms began as soon 
as they were established. These continued until the time of 
Egbert, King of Wessex, who reigned from 802 to 839. He 
united the several kingdoms and gave them the name England. 
Before Egbert's time, it was customary to give the title of 
" Bretwalda," meaning " wide ruler," or " ruler of Britain," 
to the king who was most powerful. 

There were seven or eight of these Bretwaldas before the 



597] CONVERSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS 33 

time of Egbert. Several of them are of especial interest, be- 
cause they were converted to Christianity and helped to spread 
the Christian faith among their people. 

The Venerable Bede, a Christian priest of Northumbria, 
in the eighth century wrote a history of the church in Brit- 
ain. He has left us a good account of the first missionaries, of 
their converts, and the spread of the faith through the several 
kingdoms. The Britons had been Christians, but in England 
their religion had perished with them. It was to the invaders, 
indeed, one reason for killing them. When the first mis- 
sionaries came, in 597, the country was completely heathen. 
The British Christians in the west of the island for a long 
time made no attempt to convert the English, regarding them 
as hateful to both God and man. 

The First Missionaries came from Eome. Bede tells us 
that a noble Eoman priest, named Gregory, while walking one 
day through the streets of Eome, saw some 
beautiful, fair-haired children exposed for 
sale by a slave dealer. He stopped and in- 
quired : " Who are these children ? Are 
they Christians or pagans ? " 

He was told that they were pagans and 
Angles. 

"They are wellrnamed," said Gregory, 
" for they have angelic faces and should 
be made co-heirs with the angels in heaven. 
Alas! that the author of darkness should ANGLE slave boys. 
possess men with such bright faces. From what province do 
they come ? " 

" They are from Deira." 

" Truly," said Gregory, " they shall be de ira, 1 saved from 
wrath, and called to the mercy of Christ. And who is the 
king of that land ? " 

a Latin for " from wrath." 




34 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [597 

" His name is Ella." 

"Alleluias shall be sung in those parts," said Gregory. 

Years afterwards when the priest Gregory became Pope 
Gregory the Great, he remembered the Angles, and sent to 
England a monk, named Augustine, with a company of mis- 
sionaries, about forty in all. They were monks of the order 
of Saint Benedict, whose system of monastic life, established 
in Italy about seventy years before this, had spread to most of 
the monasteries of Western Europe. During the early cen- 
turies of the Christian era, when the world was full of wick- 
edness and heathen customs were yet common, men and 
women who wished to lead pure and religious lives withdrew 
into lonely places and built convents, or monasteries, where 
they spent their time in prayer and fasting to fit the soul for 
heaven. The men were called "monks" and the women 
" nuns." Benedict's system taught the duty of work as well 
as of prayer, and Augustine and his monks came to preach and 
to work for the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon heathen. 

They landed in Kent in the spring of 597. Ethelbert, 
the king of that country, was then Bretwalda. His wife 
Bertha, a Christian, had already established a priest in an 
old Eoman church at Canterbury. The king received the 
strangers in an open field, under an oak tree, where their 
magic arts, if they had any, his pagan priests told him, would 
lose their influence. Augustine and his monks came into the 
king's 'presence in solemn procession, bearing a large cross of 
silver and a figure of the Christ wrought in gold and colors, 
while the air resounded with "Alleluias." An interpreter 
explained to Ethelbert the message they brought. The king 
replied that while he could not abandon the gods of his 
fathers, the missionaries might preach without hindrance, and 
that they should be supported at his expense. The kindness 
and piety of the Christians attracted the people from the first, 
and the king himself was baptized before the end of the year. 



700] CONVERSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS 35 

Spread of Christianity. During the next twenty-five 
years, the kingdom of Kent yielded the first place to Northum- 
brian which, under two. warlike kings, Ethelfrid and Edwin, 
rose to great power. The story of Edwin's life and conver- 
sion is full of interest. He asked the advice of his council 
concerning the new religion. 

Coin, the high priest of Woden, spoke: "No one has 
served our gods more faithfully than I, yet no one has been 
more unfortunate. I am weary of deities who are so ungrate- 
ful, and I would willingly try a new religion." 

A noble then spoke: "Often, King, in the depth of 
winter while you are feasting with your nobles, and the great 
fire is blazing in the hall, you have seen a bird, pelted by the 
storm, enter at one door and escape by the other; and you 
did not know whence it came, or whither it went. Such is 
the life of man. He walks the earth for a few years, but what 
precedes his birth and what comes after his death, we can not 
tell. If this new religion knows anything of these secrets, it 
must be worth our attention." 

The priest Paulinus then explained the doctrines of Chris- 
tianity. Coin and Edwin expressed their belief. The tem- 
ple of Woden was burned, his images were broken, and the 
religion of Christ became the faith of Northumbria. 

Other priests and monks preached Christianity in East 
Anglia, Wessex, and Sussex. It must not be thought that 
everything went smoothly for the missionaries. Many of 
them suffered death. Both Kent and Northumbria returned 
to heathenism after the deaths of Ethelbert and Edwin. But 
in the end Christianity triumphed, and within a century after 
Augustine met the King of Kent under the sacred oak, the 
work of Christianizing England was complete. 

Ireland had become Christian long before this, through 
the labors begun by Saint Patrick. Patrick was born in the 
valley of the Clyde, some years before the Romans left Brit- 



36 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [450 

ain.. He was carried off to Ireland by pirates and forced to 
serve as a shepherd. After a time he escaped. But he be- 
lieved that he heard the voice of God in a vision calling him 
to return to Ireland and preach to the people among whom he 
had worked as a slave. He traveled through the country, 
gathering them about him in the open fields, and taught 
them with success. He founded many churches and monas- 
teries, where young men were taught who went out to Scotland 
and Gaul and carried on the missionary work. Patrick won 
the love of the Irish and he became, and has ever remained, 
the patron saint of Ireland. 

Saint Columba, one of the Irish missionaries, built a fa- 
mous monastery on the island of Iona, off the Scottish coast, 
where missionaries were trained for the work of converting 
Anglo-Saxons. These missionaries soon came into conflict 
with those sent from Eome, owing to the different usages as to 
the time for keeping Easter. So violent did the strife become 
in Northumbria, that King Oswy called a council at Whitby 
(664 a. d.) to decide which of the two practices should be 
adopted. The priests of both sides offered their arguments. 

" You admit/' said the king to the Irish priest, " that 
Christ gave to Peter the keys of the kingdom of heaven. Has 
he given such power to Columba ? " 

The priest could only answer, " No." 

" Then will I rather obey the porter of heaven," said Oswy, 
" lest when I reach the gates he who has the keys turn his 
back on me, and there be none to open." There could be no 
answer to this argument, and the Irish priests turned their 
backs upon Northumbria, which, with the rest of England, 
fell under the orderly management of the Eoman Church. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Compare an old Saxon town with a town in New England at the 
present time. In what ways was each self-governing? 



802] CONVERSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS 37 

2. Why would the Britons and Saxons be likely to give different 

accounts of the conquest of Britain? 

3. How do you account for the conquest of the civilized Britons by 

the savage Angles and Saxons? 

4. How did the Anglo-Saxon conquest differ from the Roman conquest? 

Why? 

5. Where are the descendants of the Britons found to-day? Why? 

G. What is the importance of Arthur? Where did the Arthur stories 

come from? 
7. Compare the Christianizing of the Anglo-Saxons with that of the 

Irish and that of the Britons. 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. King Arthur. Lanier, The Boy's King Arthur; Greene, King 

Arthur and His Court. 

2. St. Patrick. Lawless, Story of Ireland, Ch. V. ; DeVere, Leg- 

ends of St. Patrick. 

3. The Early Germans. Kendall, Source Book of English History, 

pp. 4-12. 

4. St. Augustine. Freeman, Old-English History, Ch. VI. 

B. Alfred and the Danes. 

Under the Rule of Egbert, 1 England prospered. His 
kingdom extended from the river Tamar to the Firth of 

1 THE SAXON KINGS OF ENGLAND 
Egbert (802-839) 
Ethelwulf (839-858) 

Ethelbald Ethelbert Ethelred Alfred the Great 

(858-860) (860-866) (866-871) | (871-901) 

Edward the Elder 
I (901-925) 



Athelstan (925-940) Edmund (940-946) Edred (946-955) 



Edwy (955-959) Edgar the Peaceful (959-975) 



Edward the Martyr Ethelred II. the Unready, m. Emma of Normandy 
(975-979) (979-1016) 



Edmund Ironside Edward the Confessor 

(1042-1066) 



38 



ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND 



[802 



SCALE OF MILES 



25 SO 75 IbO 



NORTH 



SEA 




Forth, and from, the Severn to the North Sea. The people 
were content to acknowledge one king, and devoted themselves 

to agriculture and 
herding. Manufactur- 
ing of a simple kind 
began, and churches 
and convents were 
built. But a new en- 
emy had now ap- 
peared. In 787, we 
are told, in the " An- 
glo-Saxon Chronicle," 
written by Saxon 
monks, " three ship- 
loads of Danes landed 
on the coast and slew 
the sheriff of the place 
who went to inquire 
who they were. These 
were the first ships of 
Egbert's Kingdom. Danis h-m e n who 

sought the English nation." After this, there came more 
and more. They sailed in light, swift vessels, which could 
ascend the rivers. They lived in the peninsulas between the 
Baltic and North seas, and, like the Angles and Saxons, were 
of the Germanic race. 

In the churches and monasteries of those times much 
wealth was stored. The people gave many rich presents to 
them; the priests had chalices and crosses of silver and 
gold. Bibles made by the monks were splendidly bound and 
set with jewels. The heathen Danes hated the English for 
giving up the old gods Thor and Woden, and they killed the 
monks like sheep and robbed and burned the churches. So 
great was the fear of these robbers that in many places this 




871] EGBERT, ALFRED 39 

prayer was added to the church litany : " From the fury of 
the Northmen, Good Lord, deliver us ! " 

Even Egbert was unable to drive out these new invaders. 
In the year 832 he fought a great battle with thirty-five of 
these pirate vessels and 
was defeated. During the 
reigns of Egbert's son and 
grandsons, the Danes 
came again and again; 
finally they settled in the 
land, and most of the 
eastern coast came under 
their rule. 

Alfred, the youngest 
and noblest of the grand- Danish Ship. 

sons of Egbert, came to the throne of Wessex in 871. He was 
the only King of England who has been honored with the title 
of " the Great/' He was great in war, but when peace came, 
he showed himself greater still. A Welsh friend of Alfred has 
left us a book entitled "Annals of the Deeds of Alfred the 
Great." He tells us that Alfred from his boyhood was 
noted for his nobility of character and his love of wisdom. 
In those rough times it was not thought necessary that a king 
should know how to read, but he must be a stout fighter and 
skillful in defending his country. One day Alfred's mother 
was showing her sons an Anglo-Saxon poem, beautifully writ- 
ten on parchment with illuminated letters, and said, "Who- 
ever of you shall first learn to read this book, shall have it to 
keep for himself." The parchment was so beautiful and 
valuable that Alfred thought at first his mother was joking; 
but when he understood that she was in earnest, he went to 
his teacher, and in a short time had learned to read and recite 
the poem. From that moment he never ceased to devote all 
his spare time to improving his mind. In a book of proverbs 

NlVER 3. 



40 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [871 

said to have been written for the instruction of Alfred's sons, 
this verse is found: 

" Thus quoth Alfred, our delight : 
' He may be no king of right 
Under Christ who is not filled 
With book-lore, in law well-skilled ; 
Letters he must understand, 
And know his right to hold his land.' " 

Alfred and the Danes. On his accession to the throne 
at the age of twenty-two, Alfred had a terrible war on his 
hands. The year before he was made king, he had fought the 
Danes with his brother, King Ethelred. In the first battle 
both armies fought long and bravely, and the Danes were de- 
feated with heavy loss ; but a few days later the Danes fought 
again and were victorious. The Anglo-Saxons had lost some 
of their warlike spirit in becoming farmers and tradesmen. 
They were therefore no match for the fierce Danes, who made 
war their main business. Alfred saw that he must build a 
navy and fight the enemy on the sea as well as on the land. 
He built several ships, and managed to capture one Danish 
vessel. This so encouraged the people that during the next 
five years they built up a good-sized navy, with higher and 
stronger ships than even the Danes had. 

In the mean time things were going badly on land. In 
877, a terrible Danish army landed on the coast of Wessex. 
They marched through the country and carried everything 
before them. Their path was marked by the smoking ruins 
of homes and villages and the mutilated remains of the slain. 
Alfred was driven from his capital and forced to hide with 
a few followers in the swamps and woods. You have read in 
the story books how the cowherd's wife, in whose hut he had 
taken refuge, left him to tend some cakes baking on the 
hearth. But the king, who was mending his weapons and 
thinking of the Danes, left them to burn. The woman, seeing 



S78] 



ALFRED AND THE DANES 



41 



this, took them hastily away and said to the king angrily, 
:e Why dost not tarry to tnrn the cakes which thou seest burn- 
ing, seeing how glad thou art to eat them when they are 
baked?" 

But Alfred gradually drew his men about him again, until 
they were strong enough to take the field. He met the North- 
men again at Eddington (pp. 42, 7) and in a desperate battle 
defeated them. The fort in which they took refuge was be- 




Alfred and the Cakes. 

sieged, and the whole army starved into surrender. The 
Danish fleet also, of one hundred and twenty ships, had been 
overtaken by a storm which wrecked half of them, and the 
remainder were captured by Alfred's navy off the coast of 
Hampshire. 

Wedmore. Alfred was merciful to the conquered Danes. 
He made peace with G-uthrum, the Danish chief, at Wedmore, 



ENGLAND 

in 878 
After the Treaty of Wedmore 

SCALE OF MILES ^^___^ 

~80 Too 



English Territory 
Danish Territory 




878] ALFRED AND THE DANES 43 

in 878, on condition that he should become a Christian. 
Guthrum and thirty of his followers were baptized, and the 
land was divided between the Danes and the Saxons as you see 
on the map. Yon will see in the Danish section many names 
ending in " by/' as Derby, Whitby, and Grimsby. This 
shows that the Danes were the founders, for the word by 
in Danish means town or village. The ending " ton " shows 
an Anglo-Saxon origin, and yon will find names having this 
ending in central and sonthern England. 

After the Peace of Wedmore the land had rest for a time ; 
bnt then came another Danish army led by Hasting, a chief 
who had been harrying France as Gnthrnm had been harrying 
England. For three years the struggle continued, but it 
ended in the defeat of the Danes. Those who did not care 
for peaceful homes in England, returned to their own land. 

" Thanks be to God," wrote the monks, in the Chronicle, 
" the foreign army has not broken down the English nation." 

As soon as peace came, Alfred set to work to provide against 
future invasions. He organized a regular army by dividing 
the fighting men of England into two classes, and arranged 
the term of service so that while half of them were at home 
attending to their own affairs, the other half were drilling 
and fitting themselves to defend their country in case of need. 
He also increased the navy so that he could station vessels 
in every bay and inlet to prevent any attempt of the enemy 
to land. He built strong forts along the coast and fifty stone 
castles in the interior, which could be used as strongholds in 
case the enemy should enter the country. 

Alfred's Laws and Judges. When Alfred felt secure from 
invasion, he turned his attention to the improvement of af- 
fairs within his kingdom. He caused the good laws of his 
ancestors and of the neighboring kingdoms of Mercia and 
Kent to be collected. He compelled his judges to study these 
laws and to give just decisions on cases brought before them. 



44 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [900 

Wicked judges were condemned to suffer the punishment 
which they had unjustly inflicted on others. And there must 
have been many wicked ones if we are to believe one writer 
who tells us that Alfred had forty-four executed in one year 
for unlawful judgments. 

The Law Courts. The smallest unit in Anglo-Saxon gov- 
ernment was the township, or vill, consisting of the land which 
had been apportioned by an earl or a king to one of his fol- 
lowers, who dwelt upon it with his men. This lord of the 
township was called a thane. He divided the land among his 
men, who were obliged, in return, to render a certain amount 
of service, but who were in other respects free. Each town- 
ship elected a reeve and four assistants, who managed the 
town affairs and with the thane held the Town Court. 

The next higher court was known as the Hundred Court. 
The hundred was a subdivision of a shire, or county, and may 
originally have embraced a hundred families or have furnished 
a hundred fighting men. The hundred court was presided 
over by a bishop and an earl; it was held monthly, and each 
township was represented in it by the reeve and his assistants. 

Higher than the hundred was the County Court, held 
twice a year and presided over by the shire-reeve, or sheriff, 
together with the earls and bishops living within the county. 

Highest of all was the supreme court of the kingdom, the 
Witenagemote, or assembly of wise men (Witan) ; that is, the 
bishops, earls, and thanes of the kingdom. It met at the sum- 
mons of the king and was presided over by him. On the 
death of the king, the Witan met and chose his successor. 

These courts were also legislatures, each one having the 
power to make laws for the government of the people under 
its jurisdiction. In early times all matters concerning law 
and judgment might be decided by a vote of all the freemen 
present. But later, criminal cases were decided almost en- 
tirely by the method of compurgation and the ordeal. The 



900] ALFRED 45 

people of each town were responsible for the good conduct of 
its citizens. Any citizen could bring an accusation before the 
court, though later the duty of accusing suspected persons of 
crime was assigned to twelve specially selected men whom 
we call jurors. If the accused person swore to his own inno- 
cence, and could get a certain number of his fellow-townsmen 
to swear that they believed him, he was acquitted. If he 
could not obtain the required number of compurgators, or 
" purgers," so called because they purged him of his crime, he 
had to admit his guilt or submit to the judgment of God, the 
ordeal. This required him to plunge his hand into boiling 
water, or to carry a red-hot iron of a certain weight a distance 
fixed by law. If, after three days, no mark was found on 
him, he was considered innocent. If found guilty, he must 
pay the fine fixed by law for his offense. As a rule every man 
was a member of some " guild," or society, which furnished 
his compurgators or paid his fine. 

Alfred's Services to Education. Alfred tells us that 
when he became king there was no one south of the Thames 
who could read Latin, the language in which books were writ- 
ten at that time, but that many could read English. So he 
set to work to translate the Latin books into English. Bede's 
history of the church, a history of the world by the Spanish 
priest Orosius, and a book on the " Duties of a Christian 
Minister " by Gregory the Great, were some of these. He es- 
tablished schools in the monasteries, and one in his own 
palace. He brought in teachers from various parts of Eng- 
land and from other countries in order that the young nobles 
and other youth of his land might be fitted to perform the 
duties of men. He also rebuilt the churches and convents 
that the Danes had destroyed, and had many monks employed 
in copying manuscripts, for there were no printed books at 
that time, and in keeping the records of his country. He 
caused the famous book, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, to be 



46 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [900 

written down and kept; this is our main source of informa- 
tion concerning the events in early English history. He 
was interested too in architecture, in art, in the working of 
metals, and even in the making and enameling of jewels. 

We are told that the way Alfred managed to do so much 
was by dividing his time and devoting a certain part of it 
each day to whatever work he had in hand. There were no 
clocks in his time, so he had six candles made of such size 
that they would burn out in twenty-four hours. To prevent 
them from being affected by the draughts that came from the 
doors and the cracks in the walls of his palace, he had the 
candles set in boxes of wood or horn, thus making the first 
lanterns in England. 

This great king, who was one of the best men that ever 
lived, died in 901, leaving worthy children and grandchildren 
to carry on his work. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Why were the Danes superior to the Anglo-Saxons in war? 

2. What was the purpose of Alfred's navy? His army? His castles? 

3. What do you think best shows Alfred's greatness as a king? 

4. Why was the system of trial by compurgation and ordeal defective? 

5. How did the people take part in government in Alfred's time? 

Were they represented in the Witan? How? 

6. What do names teach us of the history of a country? Give 

examples. 

7. Compare the local government in Alfred's time with that in New 

England to-day. 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Battle of Brunanburh. Kendall, Source Book, pp. 21-28. 

2. King Egbert. Church, The Story of Early Britain; Guest and 

Underwood, Handbook of English History, Ch. VIII. 

3. A Saxon Village. Green, Short History of the English People, 

pp. 2-4; Kendall, Source Book, pp. 4-12. 

4. Alfred the Great. Asser, Life of Alfred; Besant, Story of King 

Alfred; Guest and Underwood, Handbook of English History, 
Ch. IX. 



1002] ALFRED'S SUCCESSORS 47 

C. The Danish and Norman Conquests. 

Edward and Athelstan, Alfred's successors, completed 
the conquest of the Danes. We hear nothing more of serious 
outbreaks until after the death of King Edgar in 975. So 
completely was Edgar master of England, that it is said he 
was rowed on the Eiver Dee by eight subject kings. Until 
after his reign the descendants of Alfred kept up the wise 
policy of maintaining a fleet and garrisons of soldiers in 
strong forts to guard the coast. Dunstan, the wise Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, was the chief counselor of Edgar. He 
wisely gave to the Danes local rulers of their own blood and 
allowed them to enjoy their own laws, thus gaining their good 
will and friendship. 

Ethelred the " Unready," the younger of Edgar's two 
sons, became king in .979. His elder brother, Edward, called 
the " Martyr," had been murdered by an assassin employed by 
Ethelred's mother, who wanted her own son to be king instead 
of Edward, who was the son of Edgar's first wife. Ethelred 
reigned thirty-seven years, and before he died a Danish king 
sat on the throne of England. There was no wise Dunstan 
to advise him. The earls of the northern provinces and the 
Danish chiefs in England rebelled. Pirates ravaged the 
coasts. In 982, the kings of Norway and Denmark came 
with a great swarm of Northmen to plunder England. Vast 
sums of money, raised by a tax on the land, were paid by 
Ethelred and the Witan to induce the Northmen to withdraw. 
They took the money, but became more insolent and warlike 
than before. At last Ethelred ordered a general massacre 
of Danes throughout the kingdom, on St. Brice's Day, the 
13th of November, 1002. The unsuspecting people were 
killed by thousands. They crowded into the churches and 
were slain around the altars. Among the victims was Gun- 
hilda, the Danish king's sister, who had become a Christian 
and had married in England. 



48 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [1013 

King Sweyn * vowed to be avenged for his sister's death, 
and entered the river Humber with a great army. He 
marched southward, and city after city fell before him. 
Finally London surrendered, Ethelred fled to France, and 
Sweyn was made King of England. But Sweyn soon died, 
and Ethelred returned. Then Ethelred too died, and his 
eldest son, Edmund Ironside, was murdered. In 1016 Ca- 
nute, Sweyn' s son, became king of all England, after fighting 
the Saxons for several years. 

King Canute made no change in the laws and government 
of England. He ordained that both Danes and English 
should be subject to their own laws, as in. the good days of 
King Edgar the Peaceful. He became a Christian, in nature 
as well as in name. He urged his judges to be sparing of 
human life, while vigilant in punishing crime; to treat the 
criminals who repented with less severity than those who did 
not; to pity the weak, because they were often driven to crime 
by oppression and want; but to mete out to the powerful the 
full rigor of the law. He forbade the sale of Christians into 
slavery, and prohibited the worship of the old heathen gods. 
Nor would he allow his officers to take any property for the 
king's use without making just payment. 

Canute Married Emma, the widow of Ethelred the Un- 
ready. It was agreed that the crown should descend to their 
children, in preference to the children of Ethelred. When 
he had made his throne in England secure, he went to Den- 
mark, taking with him Earl Godwin and many other English- 
men. Godwin helped Canute to win a great battle in 

!THE DANISH KINGS 

Sweyn (1014) 

I 
Canute (101G-1035) 



Harold (1035-1040) Hardicanute (1040-1042) 



1066] CANUTE 49 

Denmark, in return for which the king made him the most 
powerful nobleman in England. 

There was peace in England during all of Canute's reign; 
but at his death in 1035 a strife broke out between his two 
sons, Harold and Hardicanute. Each of them ruled a few 
years, but they left no children. Edward, the son of Ethel- 
red, was therefore chosen king when Hardicanute died. The 
people hailed his coming with joy, for they were weary of 
Danish rule, and were glad to have a king descended from the 
great Alfred. 

Relations with Normandy. It was not England alone 
that was subject to the incursions of the Northmen. They 
ravaged the coasts of France, Spain, and Portugal, made set- 
tlements in Iceland and Greenland, and even visited America. 
They proved so strong in France that the French king was 
forced to divide his kingdom with them, just as a few years 
before that time King Alfred divided England with Guth- 
rum. They received a province in the north of France, after- 
wards known as Normandy. Eolf, or Eollo, called the 
" Ganger " or " goer/' because of his long legs, was baptized, 
took the title of duke, and swore allegiance to the French 
king, whom he faithfully served. 

It was Eolf's great-granddaughter Emma, called from her 
beauty " the Jewel of Normandy," that was married to Ethel- 
red and afterwards to Canute. Edward, the son of Ethelred 
and Emma, called on account of his piety "the Confessor," 
came to the throne of England in 1042. He brought with 
him a multitude of Norman favorites and priests, to whom he 
gave the best places in the government and church. So well 
did he like the Normans, that he promised to give, at his 
death, his crown to the Norman duke William. 

Edward Died Childless in 1066, and Harold II., a son of 
Godwin, was elected by the Witan to succeed him. It is 
said that Harold had once been shipwrecked on the coast of 



50 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [1066 

Normandy and that he was taken to Duke William's court, 
where banquets and tournaments were held in his honor. But 
when he came to depart, he was made to swear on the bones 
of the saints that when Edward died he would support the 
claim of William to the throne of England. Neither Edward 
nor Harold, however, had any right to give away the throne 
of England, because only the Witenagemote could choose the 
king. 

William's Claim to the Throne. Besides the promise 
of Edward, and the forced oath of Harold, William claimed 
the throne of England as the inheritance of his wife Matilda, 
who was a descendant of Alfred. He had also obtained from 
the Pope, the supreme head of the Roman Catholic Church, 
a decree declaring Harold to be a usurper, and himself 
the rightful heir. However faulty William's claim seemed 
to Englishmen, the people of Normandy and of Europe 
generally came to believe in its justice. His Norman sub- 
jects, although at first unwilling to enter upon a foreign war, 
in the end joined heartily in his enterprise to take the crown 
of England by force. It is said that William was making 
ready to hunt when the news came to him that Harold had 
accepted from the Witan his election as king. " He stopped 
short in his preparations; he spake to no man and no man 
durst speak to him." He presently sent a demand to the 
new king to resign the crown to him, or at least to acknowl- 
edge him as superior lord, and to marry his daughter. Har- 
old had but one answer to make, that he had been chosen 
king in a legal manner, and could not choose a wife without 
the approval of the assembly of his wise men. In fact, he 
had already married Edith, the widow of the king of 
North Wales and the sister of Edwin and Morkar, the 
powerful earls of Mercia and Northumbria. This marriage 
served to draw the Celtic and Danish people closer to the 
English throne. 



1066] HAROLD II. 51 

Stamford Bridge. While William was making prepara- 
tions for the invasion of England, a new enemy threatened 
Harold in the north. His brother Tostig, who had been 
appointed Earl of Northumbria by Edward the Confessor, 
had been driven from his earldom on account of his mis- 
government, and the people had chosen Morkar in his stead. 
Morkar was recognized as earl by Edward and by Harold; 
and Tostig went abroad in search of aid in regaining his. 
earldom. He persuaded Harold Hardrada, king of Nor- 
way, to join him. The two sailed up the Humber Eiver 
and attacked the city of York. They defeated the earls 
Edwin and Morkar in a fierce battle and compelled the 
Northumbrians to join them in a war on Harold of England, 
for Tostig wanted to be king himself. 

When news of the battle was brought to King Harold, he 
gathered his army and started north as fast as men and horses 
could go. He fell in with the Northmen at Stamford Bridge 
on the Derwent, Tostig and Hardrada were taken by sur- 
prise, but they drew up their men in a circle with the stand- 
ard in the center and spearmen on the outer lines. As 
Hardrada, conspicuous in blue mantle and glittering helmet, 
rode about the circle to see that all was ready, his horse 
stumbled and fell. 

" Who is that chieftain on the ground ?" asked Harold of 
England. 

Some of the Northmen with him answered, " That is the 
King of Norway." 

" He is a gallant warrior," returned Harold, " but his end 
is near." 

Then twenty of King Harold's men rode out to parley with 
the Northmen. As they drew near one of them said, "Is 
Earl Tostig, the son of Godwin, in this host ? " and Tostig 
himself replied. Then said the Englishman, " King Harold 
of England greeteth thee, and saith that you shall have all 



52 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [1066 

Northumbrian nay, even a third of his kingdom to rule 
over, rather than that his brother should be an enemy." 

Tostig replied, " My brother speaketh fair, but what shall 
King Hardrada of Norway have for his toil in coming 
hither ? " 

The Englishman answered, " Seven feet of earth for a 
grave, seeing he is a very tall man." 

Tostig scorned to abandon his friend. For a time the 
spearmen of Hardrada held firm, but in their zeal they 
broke the ranks to pursue some of the fleeing enemy. The 
English rushed into the gap. Tostig and Hardrada were 
killed, and their army put to the sword. It was one of the 
bloodiest battles in the history of England, and for long after- 
wards the ground was whitened by the bones of the slain. 

The Battle of Hastings, 1066. Four days after the bat- 
tle of Stamford Bridge, Duke William landed on the coast of 
England. He had spent eight months in preparation and 
had a well equipped army and fleet. His own ship, a pres- 
ent from his duchess, Matilda, was a beautifully decorated 
vessel with the consecrated banner sent by the Pope floating 
from the masthead. His soldiers were mostly knights on 
horseback, clad in armor. 

His landing was unopposed. He put up fortifications and 
gathered provisions for his troops. 

In the mean time hurried messengers found Harold at 
York, celebrating in a banquet his victory over the Northmen. 
His army had been largely disbanded after the battle. The 
northern earls refused to follow him to the defense of the 
south. He marched at once to London, enlisting men by 
the way, and in six days after his arrival, we are told, "he 
gathered together an innumerable number of Englishmen/' 
He took position on Senlac Hill above the town of Hastings, 
where William had fortified himself. This hill he guarded with 
three palisades. His men were ordered to keep close to the 



1066] NORMAN CONQUEST 53 

defenses and repel the attack of the enemy. If they had 
obeyed, the battle of Hastings might have gone differently. 

The Norman archers opened the battle, and then the 
Norman knights advanced to the attack. But they could not 
break through the English defenses, behind which, with 
spear and ax, the stout warriors cut down every Norman 
who was rash enough to enter. All day the English re- 
pelled the repeated charges of the enemy. At length they 
rushed out of their fort to pursue some fleeing troops. 
William rallied his men, and facing about they slaughtered 
their pursuers. The duke himself led a fierce charge against 
the king's standard, around which were gathered the flower of 
the English. They stood firm. William then feigned re- 




Part of the Battle of Hastings ; from the Bayeux Tapestry. 

treat, and the undisciplined English troops were again drawn 
into a pursuit and great numbers of them were cut down 
by the Norman cavalry. 

Toward sunset William gave the command, " Shoot up- 
ward, Norman archers, that the arrows may fall upon their 
faces !" One of the descending shafts entered the eye of the 
English king. The Norman knights rushed toward the royal 
standard, for while that waved the English would never re- 
treat. Harold fell in the deadly struggle about the flag. His 
own guard would take no quarter and died to a man in his 
defense ; but the rest of the army fled, and the Norman duke 
had won the battle of Hastings and the kingdom of England. 

The Pope's banner was set up where had stood the golden 



54 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND [1066 

dragon of Wessex. In after times, William built there his 
great minster, the Battle Abbey, whose altar marks the spot 
where the standard of the English king was taken. 

The Bayeux Tapestry, in the public library of Bayeux 
in France (map, p. 76), is the most famous record of the 
Norman invasion and the battle of Hastings. On a piece of 
canvas seventy-one yards long by twenty inches in breadth, 
are embroidered in various colors seventy-two pictures repre- 
senting the different scenes in the conquest. This work is 
said to have been done by Matilda and the ladies of her court. 
It is of great value in showing the dress and weapons of the 
time, the kind of ships and the manner of fighting, besides 
giving us pictures of many events in connection with this 
famous battle. 

Crowning of William. After the battle, the Conqueror 
marched slowly to London, securing the important towns on 
the way. By his wise policy and kind treatment of the 
English, he secured their submission. The Witan elected 
him king, and the Archbishop of York crowned him on 
Christmas Day in the new church of Westminster, close to 
London, built by Edward the Confessor. 

The Four Conquests. And so the first act in the fourth 
conquest of Britain was finished. The Eomans had found 
the country rude and uncivilized. They subdued the savage 
people and taught them agriculture and the arts of civilized 
life. They built roads and cities, and encouraged trade and 
manufactures. But the severe Eoman rule made the people 
little better than slaves. The Anglo-Saxon conquest wiped out 
in England every trace of the Eoman influence except the roads 
and names of places. It brought in what was far better, how- 
ever, — the Saxon idea that all men are equal before the law, 
and the practice of allowing every freeman to take part in the 
government. The Anglo-Saxons, after several hundred years 
of residence in England, became sluggish and corrupt, and 



106G] NORMAN CONQUEST 55 

wasted their strength in civil wars. The Danish conquest 
(1016) brought peace and unity. This vigorous, daring race 
of Northmen stirred up the older Saxons to new life. In the 
next chapter we shall learn something about the important 
changes in England brought about by the Norman conquest. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. What mistakes did Ethelred make in his treatment of the Danes? 

2. Why was William's claim to the English crown of no' value? 

3. Compare the Norman and the English manner of fighting at 

Hastings. 

4. Tell some advantage and some disadvantage resulting to England 

from each of the four conquests. Give the date of the beginning 
of each. What weakness in government made each possible? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Vikings. S. W. Dasent, The Vikings of the Baltic. 

2. Elfrida. Dickens, A Child's History of England, Ch. IV. ; Morris, 

Stories from English History. 

3. Canute. Freeman, Old-English History, pp. 222-246. 

4. The Battle of Hastings. Green, Short History, pp. 75-77; 

Jewett, Story of the Normans, Ch. XV. 



III. ENGLAND TINDEK NOKMAN KINGS. 1 

A. The Norman Government. 
William I., 1066-1087. 

The English Thanes and Bishops offered allegiance to 
William on his arrival in London and were kindly treated. 
But the northern earls of Mereia and Northnmbria hastened 
away to their estates. 

William was not betrayed into a feeling of security by the 
apparent submission of the people. He feared especially the 
strong city of London with its free and independent popula- 
tion. He laid waste the land about the city so that no aid 
could be brought to it from outside. He built within the city 
a strong fortress that became the famous Tower of London, 
where so many distinguished prisoners have been confined and 
put to death. 

Many such Norman castles were soon built throughout 
England, at first hastily; but gradually they grew into im- 
mense fortresses of solid stone, with towers from which 
missiles could be thrown upon besiegers. Each was sur- 
rounded with a mound of earth and a broad moat filled with 

1 TWE NORMAN KINGS 

William L, the Conqueror (1066-1087) 



Robert, Duke of William II. Henry I. Adela, m. Count of Blois 

Normandy (1087-1100) | (1100-1135) | 

„ „ _,, I Stephen (1135-1154) 

Geoffrey Plantagenet, m. Matilda 



Henry II. (p. 75) 
56 



1066] 



WILLIAM I. 



57 



water. Within was room for a large body of soldiers, and 
provisions and supplies of war. 

Greed of the Normans. William had held out to his f ol- 




CORONATION OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

lowers promises of a rich booty from the conquest of England, 
and they could be restrained from plundering only by his 
immediate presence. Even while the coronation ceremonies 

NlVER 4. 



58 ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS [1066 

were taking place at Westminster, some of the Norman soldiers 
set fire to the adjoining houses and began to pillage in the con- 
fusion. 

The estates of the English who fought at Hastings had 
been taken by the king, and his army had taken a vast amount 
of property on their march to London. But this was all too 
little to gratify the rapacity of his men, or to make good 
his promises. As he claimed to be the lawful successor of 
Edward, he was an English king, and it would not do to 
plunder his own people without a decent pretext. 

Outbreaks of the English soon furnished the pretext. 
A few months after his coronation, William returned to 
Normandy. Thereupon the Norman soldiers in the different 
garrisons began to rob and abuse the English people. When 
the English appealed to the Norman officers they were refused 
protection and justice. They now rose and began to attack 
the garrisons, and the news of this outbreak soon brought 
William to England. 

It is probable that William secretly rejoiced at an oppor- 
tunity to chastise the English. He was quite as greedy as 
his followers, and he resolved now to crush a people who he 
declared could not be won by kindness. On William's return 
he dismissed his English friends with promises of just gov- 
ernment; but immediately afterward he levied a large tax on 
them to raise money to keep them in subjection. He had 
gained the support of Earl Edwin of Mercia by promising 
his daughter in marriage, but as soon as he felt secure, he 
refused to keep the promise. 

The people in the different parts of England did not unite 
against William, and he subdued one district after another 
in the course of the next three years. In the north, the peo- 
ple sent for help to the Danish king, who claimed the throne 
of England as his inheritance. The Danish forces were joined 
along the river Humber by a company from Scotland, and by 



1071] WILLIAM 1. 59 

men from the west and north of England. The united forces 
besieged York and massacred its garrison of three thousand 
Normans. 

When William heard this news he swore a great oath that 
not a Northumbrian should be left alive. He bribed the 
Danes to retire. He then laid waste the country between the 
Humber and the Tees. His orders were that every living 
thing, men, women, children, and animals, should be slain; 
that all crops and buildings should be burned ; and that farm- 
ing tools should be broken so that there might be no means of 
supporting life. Of the people who escaped to the moors and 
mountains, it is said a hundred thousand died of starvation. 
So thoroughly was the work done, that the country north of 
the Humber was spoken of for fifty years afterward as a 
" waste/' a desert. 

In a later revolt against William the "promise-breaker/' 
Earl Edwin of Mercia was killed, but his brother Morkar of 
Northumbria escaped and joined Hereward, the "last of the 
English," who had taken refuge in the island fortress of Ely. 

Years afterward the English loved to honor the name of 
Hereward. He had been banished by Edward, and had 
served in foreign wars. When he heard of the death of his 
father and that his mother had been driven from the old 
home by a Norman, he returned to England and, gathering 
his vassals, drove the Normans out. When this exploit was 
noised abroad, every Englishman who wanted to avenge his 
wrongs hastened to Hereward. William resolved to subdue 
this determined chief. He stationed his ships along the 
Wash to prevent his escape, and built a solid road for two 
miles across the fens to the island. Hereward attacked the 
workmen with such fury and success that the Normans 
thought the devil must have been helping him. To en- 
courage them William placed an old sorceress in a wooden 
tower which was pushed along in front of the men. Then 



60 ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS [1071 

one day Hereward sallied out suddenly and burned the tower 
and sorceress together. But the work was pushed steadily 
on until Hereward' s men were forced to surrender. He 
alone escaped across the swamps and hid in the woods. The 
king, who admired a brave warrior, offered to give him back 
his father's estate. Hereward swore allegiance to William 
and was faithful to him the rest of his life. 

Scotland. After one of the English revolts William in- 
vaded Scotland and compelled King Malcolm to kneel before 
him and swear to be faithful. He then allowed Malcolm to 
keep his crown as a vassal of England. This meant that if 
he should ever rebel or again assist William's enemies as 
he had done, William would have the right to declare his 
crown forfeited and to give his kingdom to another. Mal- 
colm's kingdom had grown up gradually from a kingdom 
founded by a tribe of Scots who came from Ireland in the 
sixth century. The rule of the Scottish kings was extended 
over the native Picts and also over the Anglo-Saxons of the 
Lowlands. The Scots of this time were thus partly Celtic 
and partly English in race. 

How William Divided the Land. There was now peace 
in England. The nobles were completely vanquished. Wil- 
liam declared all property of those who had fought against 
him to be forfeited. He therefore became the owner of nearly 
the whole of England. He allowed the English thanes to 
keep some small estates, but the greater part he divided 
among his Norman followers. In this way about twenty 
thousand Normans became landholders in England. 

William did not, however, give to any one many estates 
in the same county, but each baron's possessions were scat- 
tered over England. This prevented the noble from becom- 
ing too powerful and made him dependent on the king for 
the protection of his scattered estates. Each baron in return 
for his land agreed to furnish at the call of the king a certain 



1087] 



WILLIAM I. 



61 



number of knights, mounted and completely armed. It was 
customary to divide the land into portions called "knights' 
fees," the holder of each knight's fee being bound to furnish 
one knight at the call of the king. There 
were about sixty thousand knights' fees 
in England, thus placing a 
powerful army of cavalry at 
the king's service. The large 
landholders, after reserving 
part of the land for their 
own use, would divide the * 
rest into knights' fees and 
sublet them to their own 
vassals on the same condition on 
which they had received them 
from the king. Only their knights' 
fees might be much smaller than 
those which they held of the king. 
Aids and Reliefs, as well as 
military service, were required of 
the tenants of the king. These 
were names given to certain taxes. 
There was the " scutage," or war- 
tax, which was required in case they failed to send the required 
number of knights. If the king was taken prisoner and re- 
quired to be ransomed, if his eldest son was to be made a 
knight, or his eldest daughter married, he could call upon his 
tenants for an " aid," or money tax, to defray the expense. 
Every heir had to pay a sum of money called " relief " to his 
lord before he could have his inheritance. If the heir was un- 
der age the lord also had the income of the land until the 
heir attained his majority. If a tenant died without heirs, 
the land reverted to the lord. If a tenant committed any one 
of a long list of crimes, he forfeited his estate to his lord, 




A Norman Knight. 



62 ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS [1072 

his blood was held to be " attainted," and no heir could 
inherit property through him. 

Fealty was required of every tenant. Kneeling, with his 
hands placed between those of his lord, he repeated the oath : 
" I become your liege man of life and limb and earthly 
worship; and faith and truth I will bear to you to live and 
die/' The man then was obliged to respect and obey his lord ; 
and the lord was obliged to protect his man in life and prop- 
erty. 

Domesday Book. When William had finished his divi- 
sion of the estates of England among his followers, he 
caused a grand survey of the realm to be made and had a 
list of every man's property made out. " So carefully did 
he have it done," says the Chronicle, " that there was not an 
ox, or a cow, or a pig passed by." All this information was 
written down in a great book called " Domesday Book," the 
word dome,, or doom, meaning judgment. After this when a 
dispute arose concerning what was due the king, judgment 
was given by appealing to the figures in this book. 

Fealty to the King; Feudal System. The agreement 
between the man and his lord, made in taking the oath of 
fealty, was called a " feud," from the Latin word fozdus, 
meaning an agreement. Hence the system of military gov- 
ernment through the holding of land, which has just been 
described, was called the " Feudal System." In some coun- 
tries where this system prevailed, the lower tenants swore 
fealty only to their immediate lord. But William would have 
every landholder swear fealty to him, so that the first duty of 
every one of them would be to his king. He accordingly 
caused all the nobles, landholders, and their vassals, to the 
number of 60,000, to assemble on Salisbury plain and there 
kneel before him and take the oath of allegiance. Henceforth 
every man in the realm was bound to fight first of all for the 
king, even if he had to fight against his lord. 



1087] WILLIAM I. 63 

How the English were Kept Faithful. The English 
were far more numerous than the Normans, and if they had 
not been in fear of the king and his trained army., they 
would have risen and driven the Normans out. Thus the 
Norman landowner must depend upon the king for protection 
against the English. The English hated the Normans, who 
lived upon land which had been theirs, and to whom they 
were obliged to swear allegiance for the little strips of land 
that they held. They perhaps hated the king too, but they 
hated the nobles far more; and since they could not have an 
English king, a Norman king was better than none at all. 
Hereafter, when trouble arises between the king and his Nor- 
man lords, we shall find the English fighting on the king's 
side. 

The Forests. William was fond of hunting. Miles of 
country were cleared of houses to make forests for the king's 
hunting. Sixty parishes were devastated in Hampshire to 
make room for the "New Forest." There were in later 
times sixty-eight of these forests. Any one who was caught 
chasing the king's game was punished with the greatest 
cruelty.. 

William and the Pope. The Pope who had sent William 
a sacred banner, which was set up on the field of Hastings, 
was dead, and a new Pope, Gregory VII., had taken his place. 
It was owing to Gregory's influence that William had received 
the Pope's aid. As Gregory now wished to make reforms in 
the church, he counted on William's aid. He would abolish 
the sale of offices in the church and would enforce the laws 
forbidding the marriage of priests; and he thought that all 
countries and kingdoms should do homage to him as the 
head of the church. William agreed to help the Pope, but 
insisted that all communication between him and the church 
in England must receive the king's approval. As for doing 
homage, William was not the man to think of such a thing 



64 ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS [1073 

for a moment, and he laid down the following rules: that 
no subject of his should be put out of the church without his 
permission; that no meeting of church authorities in Eng- 
land should take action without his leave. 

King William was the only sovereign in Europe at that time 
who maintained his independence of the Pope in political 
matters. 

The Character of William was stern, but just, and he 
was a lover of peace. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells us 
" he made such good peace in the land that a man that was 
good for aught might travel over England with his bosom 
full of gold without molestation." He was a man of great 
height and immense strength. No other man could bend his 
bow or follow him upon the march, and when he was in 
anger his appearance was so terrible that we are told no 
man dared speak in his presence. William had a high regard 
for religion, and he never appointed ignorant or wicked men 
to high positions in the church. He made Lanfranc, who 
had been the head of a Norman abbey, his chief adviser and 
Archbishop of Canterbury, and none could be found with a 
keener mind or a purer heart. 

William's Council was composed of the great landholders 
— that is, of the higher clergy and nobility of the realm. 
Three times each year they were summoned to meet the king 
to advise with him about the government of the country. 
Archbishops, bishops, earls, and barons came from all over 
England, and the king was able to learn everything of im- 
portance concerning the state of the kingdom. This body 
became known as the " Great Council." It was the succes- 
sor of the Witenagemote. It was the aim of William to 
continue as far as possible the English institutions and 
laws, for he wished to be considered, not as a conqueror, but 
as the rightful successor of Edward. The history of the Great 
Council is of the utmost importance, for out of it grew up 



1088] WILLIAM II. 65 

the House of Lords, the Commons, the Courts of Law, and 
the Cabinet. 

Last Days. William's later years were made sad by the 
rebellion of his eldest son, Eobert. Eobert had demanded of 
his father the rule of Normandy, and when it was refused 
him, tried to take it by force. He was driven out and com- 
pelled to live in exile. Soon after this, during a war with 
the King of France, William was so injured by the stumbling 
of his horse that he died. He divided his possessions among 
his three sons. To William, called Eufus, or the Eed, he 
gave the kingdom of England; to Eobert he left the duchy 
of Normandy ; and to Henry, called " Beau Clerk," or " fine 
scholar," because he had learned to read (a rare accomplish- 
ment in those days), he left five thousand pounds, with the 
prediction that in the end Henry would obtain both England 
and Normandy. 

William II., 1087-1100. 

William Rufus hurried to England to secure the crown 
and royal treasure. Henry made equal haste to get his 
money into a safe place ; but Eobert, who as eldest son might 
have claimed the throne, made no exertion to obtain it. 

William II. had all the greed, cruelty, and willfulness of 
his father, but none of his sense of justice, respect for re- 
ligion, or wise statesmanship. He was blustering and very 
wicked, and irritated his great nobles to such a degree that 
they soon formed a conspiracy to dethrone him and to put 
Eobert in his place. They knew that generous, easy-going 
Eobert would allow them their own way in everything. The 
English saw that they would become the slaves of the barons 
if there were no king strong enough to protect them. When 
William II. called on them for aid and promised to restore 
the good laws of Edward, they rallied to his support twenty 
thousand strong. Two of the most powerful nobles were 



66 



ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS 



[1088 



captured with the strong castle of Kochester, where they had 
prepared for defense; the other rebellious nobles were soon 
compelled to surrender, and the struggle was at an end. But 
William did not fulfill his promise to the English to restore 
the old laws, and he levied heavier taxes than ever. 

Anselm. The pious Lanfranc, who had been the adviser 
of William I. 9 now died, and William II. seized upon the 
revenues of Canterbury and refused to 
appoint any one to the highest 
post in the church in England. 
Other vacancies in the 
church also were kept 
open by William, who 
would not fill them un- 
less he were paid a sum 
of money corresponding 
to the revenue of the 
post. But once he was 
taken very ill, and was 
persuaded as a pious act 
to appoint a virtuous and 
wise priest named Anselm, 
who like Lanfranc had been 
an abbot in Normandy, to 
be Archbishop of Can- 
terbury. Soon William 
recovered his health 
and demanded from 
Anselm a thousand 
pounds as the price of 
his appointment. The 
archbishop could not pay so much, and after various disputes 
growing out of the quarrel about this money he was forced 
to leave England. 




Rufus Stone., New Forest. 



1100] ' WILLIAM II. 67 

The Crusades were wars waged by the Christian nations 
of Europe to recover the holy city of Jerusalem from the 
Saracens. The first Crusade, or " war for the cross," was 
stirred up by a French priest, Peter the Hermit, who went 
about telling how shamefully the Saracens treated pious 
pilgrims to the Holy Land. He aroused great enthusiasm 
everywhere. Among those who wished to lead an army to 
Palestine was Eobert. He had already sold a third of Nor- 
mandy to Henry for three thousand pounds, and he now of- 
fered William the income of the duchy for five years, for the 
ten thousand pounds he needed to equip his expedition. 
William agreed at once. Eobert accordingly went on the cru- 
sade and took part in the capture of Jerusalem, but he loitered 
on his return, so that he lost a second opportunity to claim the 
throne of England. 

William's Death. After a hunt in the New Forest, the 
king was found dead, with an arrow in his breast. It was 
never known who shot the arrow. Some said it was shot 
at a stag and struck the king by accident. Others recalled 
an old prophecy that t( the New Forest would bring evil 
upon the descendants of the Conqueror," who had destroyed 
so many homes of the poor to obtain it ; and whispered that the 
king had been murdered by some revengeful Englishman. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Compare the Anglo-Saxon and Norman ways of dividing the land. 

2. How did William keep both the Norman nobles and the conquered 

English in subjection? 

3. What was the value of the Domesday Book? 

4. Describe the feudal system, mentioning social classes, taxation, 

fealty, and the duties of lords and vassals. 

5. How was feudal government adapted to a lawless and unsettled 

country? 

6. Explain the relations of William and Gregory VII. How did they 

resemble each other? 

7. Why did the conquered English favor the king rather than the 

barons? 



6& ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS [1100 

8. Give three reasons for the importance of the Norman Great Coun- 
cil. Who attended it? 



TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Hereward. Kingsley, Hereward; Morris, Hereward, the Wake. 

2. Robert of Normandy. Dickens, A Child's History of England, 

Ch. X.; Jewett, Story of the Normans (see index). 

3. Anselm. Green, Short History, pp. 73-74, 90, 91, 96. 

4. The King's Forests. Kendall, Source Book, p. 48; Jewett, 

Story of the Normans. 

B. The Struggle with the Barons. 
Henry I., 1100-1135. 

Henry rode at full speed to Winchester to demand the 
crown and royal treasure. An attempt was made by the 
keeper to hold them for Robert, but Henry had the determina- 
tion of his father, and his threat of instant death changed 
the keeper's mind. In the absence of Anselm, the Bishop 
of London placed the crown upon his head. 

A Charter of Liberties was issued to the people at the 
beginning of Henry's reign, to secure their support against 
any attempt to place Eobert on the throne. This charter 
contained the king's promise not to steal the money of the 
church, as his brother had done. It forbade all lords to 
extort from their tenants too large aids and reliefs; and it 
promised to restore to the nation at large the old English 
law as William the Conqueror had amended it. The king 
also became suddenly virtuous, drove all wicked men and 
women from his court, and recalled the distinguished Arch- 
bishop Anselm, for whom he professed the highest regard. 

At the request of his advisers he married Matilda, or 
Maud, the daughter of the Scotch King Malcolm and de- 
scended through her mother from Alfred the Great. You 
may imagine how the English rejoiced over a queen of their 
own race, but the Normans held up to ridicule the pretended 



1106] HENRY I. 69 

goodness of the king and the real goodness of the queen, and 
gave them the English nicknames " Godric " and " Godiva." 

War with Robert. The year following the coronation of 
Henry brought Eobert back to Normandy. After duly cele- 
brating his return, he leisurely began preparations to invade 
England. But the two brothers held a conference and made 
peace. Henry soon afterward sought a quarrel with Eobert 
and invaded Normandy. In the battle of Tinchebrai, Robert 
was totally defeated and made a prisoner; and he was shut 
up in Cardiff castle, near the Severn, for the rest of his long 
life. Henry now became Duke of Normandy as well as King 
of England. 

The Appointment, of Church Officers was the cause of 
a quarrel between Henry and the Pope. To understand this 
quarrel, we must bear in mind the fact that the estates set 
apart for the support of the clergy were held on the same 
conditions as the barons held theirs, namely, those of fealty 
and military service. Each bishop and abbot must do hom- 
age to the king, furnish soldiers, and pay the customary aids 
and taxes. These officers were selected by the king, though 
by church law they were supposed to be elected by the priests 
or monks of the cathedral church or abbey. But we have seen 
how shamefully William II. had abused his power. The Pope 
was trying to take away from kings the appointment and con- 
trol of all church officers. Anselm refused to do homage to 
Henry, and a dispute arose which was finally settled by giving 
the Pope the right of investing the bishops with the ring and 
staff, the symbols of their spiritual power, while Henry re- 
served the right of exacting military service and aids, and of 
supervising their election by the lower clergy. The king thus 
kept the power of preventing the election of an enemy to a 
position of power in England, while the Pope had the power 
to exclude incompetent or immoral men, by refusing to install 
them in office. 



70 ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS [1124 

The King's Justice. As soon as Henry felt safe on his 
throne he did not hesitate to break all the good promises he 
had made in his charter. Bnt he would allow no one else 
to break the laws. During his reign crime was severely pun- 
ished ; it was said, " ISTo man durst misdo against another in 
Henry's time." At one sitting of a court (1124), forty-four 
robbers were hanged. He would not allow any coin to be 
made less than legal value, and any coiner who dared to do 
it had his hands struck off or his eyes put out. He would 
not allow any of his lords to take the people's property un- 
justly, and gained from them the title, which he did not 
deserve, of "the Lion of Justice." 

Eeally, Henry was cruel, treacherous, and greedy. He en- 
forced justice because it brought money into the royal treas- 
ury. Every criminal either forfeited his estate to the king 
or paid a large fine. Henry's word could not be depended 
upon for a moment. When a certain nobleman was told that 
the king had said pleasant things about him, he cried out, 
"Alas ! I am ruined ; for misfortune has come to every man 
that the king praises." It would take the rest of this book 
to tell the story of all those whose hands or feet Henry had 
cut off, or whom he caused to be blinded. 

Henry's Only Son William was drowned in crossing the 
Channel in a vessel called the "White Ship.'" The courtiers 
sent a little child to tell Henry the sad news; and this king, 
so hard and cruel to others, fell fainting to the floor, so 
stricken was he by his loss. 

" The bark that held a prince went down, 

The sweeping waves rolled on ; 
And what was England's glorious crown 

To him that wept a son? 
He lived — for life may long be borne 

Ere sorrow break its chain ; 
Why comes not death to those who mourn? 

He never smiled again." x 

1 From the poem " He Never Smiled Again," by Mrs. Hemans, 



1135] STEPHEN 71 

His daughter Matilda married Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, 
one of the most important provinces of France. Henry 
wished Matilda to succeed him, and had induced some of his 
barons to swear to support her ; but when he died a stronger 
candidate for the throne appeared in the person of her 
cousin Stephen, Count of Bk>is. He was a good-natured, 
brave, and gallant gentleman, but lacked the sternness and 
force necessary to hold the haughty barons in check. 

Stephen, 1135-1154. 

The Reign of Stephen taught the people of England how 
to value the rule of a stern king like Henry the First. All 
the evils of the feudal system were felt in Stephen's time. 
"Soon did the land fall into trouble," the Chronicle says, 
" and every man began to rob his neighbor as he might." 
The barons, secure in their great stone castles, set the king's 
authority at defiance. " When the traitors saw that he was 
a mild man, and a soft and a good, and that he did not 
enforce -justice, they broke their oaths of allegiance to him, 
and built castles throughout the land. They greatly op- 
pressed the wretched people, making them work at these cas- 
tles, which, when finished, they filled with devils and evil 
men." Some of them did not take the trouble to build for 
themselves. They seized upon the nearest church or mon- 
astery and converted it Into a castle. 

The robber barons went out at night and seized men and 
women whom they suspected of concealing property, and 
tortured them until they gave it up. " They hung some up 
by their feet and smoked them with foul smoke, and some by 
the thumbs, and some by the head, and they hung burning 
things on their feet. And they put knotted cords about their 
heads and twisted them until they went into the brain. And 
some they put into a chest that was short and narrow and 
not deep, and they put sharp stones in it and crushed the 



72 



ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS 



[1135 



man therein, so that they broke all his limbs. And this state 
of things lasted the nineteen years that Stephen was king, 
and ever grew worse and worse." 

The land about these castles was soon deserted, and the 
barons themselves frequently were reduced to starvation and 
were obliged to ride many miles before they could obtain food. 
" Then was corn dear, and flesh and cheese and butter, for 
there was none in the land ; wretched men starved ; some lived 
on alms, who had before been rich. Some fled from the 
country. Never was there more misery, and never acted 
heathen worse than these." 




Before the Battle of the Standard. 

The Wars of Stephen and Matilda added to this horrible 
state of lawlessness. Some of the nobles had attached them- 
selves to the cause of Matilda, some to that of Stephen. But 
a large number held aloof from both. They wanted no 
sovereign at all, in order that they might be free to continue 
their robbery and murder. 

David, King of Scotland, took up the cause of his niece, 
Matilda, and three times invaded England. The third time 
he was defeated by a brave priest, Thurstan, the old Arch- 



1153] STEPHEN 73 

bishop of York, in the " Battle of the Standard." A tall 
cross mounted on a cart and surrounded by the banners of 
Yorkshire saints was taken into the field. At the foot of 
the cross the archbishop read prayers, and the English archers 
and Norman knights pledged themselves to conquer or die. 
A furious attack of the Scots was repulsed, and David re- 
tired, leaving twelve thousand men dead upon the field. 

Next, Matilda, won a fierce battle at Lincoln. Stephen 
was made prisoner. She then marched to London and was 
acknowledged as queen. She enjoyed but a brief reign. 
London had been first to accept Stephen, and, to punish the 
city, Matilda levied a heavy tax upon the people and revoked 
the laws of King Edward, which had been sanctioned by 
Stephen. At this crisis, the followers of the captured Stephen 
appeared before the city. The bells were rung and the peo- 
ple at once joined his party. They attacked Matilda's army, 
drove them out of the city, and in the pursuit captured many 
of her followers, including Eobert, Earl of Gloucester, the 
leading spirit of her cause. To save his life, he was forced 
to release Stephen, for whom he was exchanged. The war 
was now renewed, and Matilda was driven out of the country. 

Henry Plantagenet, Matilda's son, had been growing in 
prosperity and power. First he was made Duke of Nor- 
mandy, and then from his father he inherited the province of 
Anjou. In 1152, Henry married Eleanor, the former wife 
of the King of France, and with her came the two provinces 
of Aquitaine and Poitou. Henry now had more territory in 
France than the French king himself. He took the field 
against Stephen in support of his mother's claim. Stephen 
became alarmed and disheartened, and made peace by adopt- 
ing Henry as his successor. The barons on both sides were 
compelled to take oath to carry out the agreement and to 
give hostages to Henry. Stephen and Henry then visited 
the chief cities of England, and were joyfully received by 

NlVER 5. 



74 ENGLAND UNDER NORMAN KINGS [1154 

the people, who felt now that the period of lawlessness was 
at an end. Henry now retired to France. But in the follow- 
ing year (1154) Stephen died, and Henry returned to Eng- 
land to become the first of the Plantagenet kings. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How were the people affected by Henry's charter? 

2. In what ways was each of the Conqueror's sons unlike him? 

3. Was Henry right or wrong in regard to the church appointments? 

Give reasons. 

4. What does Stephen's reign teach us of the people of England? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Normandy. Green, Short History, pp. 71-74; Jewett, Story of 

the Normans. 

2. The White Ship. C. W. Colby, Sources of English History, pp. 

49-52; Mrs. Hemans's poem, He Never Smiled Again; D. G. 
Rossetti, The White Ship. 

3. The Robber Barons. Green, Short History, pp. 101-103 ; Ken- 

dall, Source Book, pp. 51-55. 

4. Robin Hood. Lang, Book of Romance, pp. 323-355 ; Pyle, Merry 

Adventures of Robin Hood. 



IV. THE EAELY PLANTAGENET KINGS. 1 

A. The Days of Chivalry. 
Henry II., 1154-1189. 

The Extent of Henry's Possessions made him the most 
powerful king in Europe. His dominions extended from the 
Pyrenees to Scotland, and included more than half of Erance. 
So far as his French lands were concerned, he was the vassal 
of the French king, but he was more powerful than his lord. 
The King of Scotland became his man, and during his reign 
parts of Wales and Ireland were joined to his dominions. 

The Name Plantagenet reminds us of the beginning of 
the custom of having surnames. They were introduced by 
the Normans. Count Geoffrey, Henry's father, wore on his 
helmet a sprig of the broom plant (in Latin, planta genistce). 
This gave rise to his surname, Plantagenet. 

Henry's Character and Rule. Henry II. was a tall, 
strong man. He was always at work, and could not sit still, 
even when at church. In the early part of his reign he man- 
aged his own affairs, and, as he had a very large realm, was 
always busy. More than half his time was spent in France 
looking after -his possessions there, and arranging marriages 
for his children and keeping them in order. This last grew 

1 THE EARLY PLANTAGENETS. 

Henry II. (1154-1189) (o. 56) 

I 

I i i I 

Henry Geoffrey Richard I. Coeur de Lion John, Lackland 

| (1189-1199) I (1199-1216) 

Arthur Henry III. 

^___ I (1216-1272) 

Edward I. (p. 102) Edmund, 

Earl of Lancaster (p. 133) 

75 



=160 




Longitude West 5° from Greenwich 



0° Longitude East 



76 



1154] HENRY II. 77 

to be a very difficult business, on account of his queen, Eleanor, 
who brought them up to be willful and disobedient. 

Reforms of Henry. Many castles that had been built in 
England during the civil war were still dens of robbery and 
murder, and one of the first acts of Henry's reign was to 
demolish several hundred of them. Henry declared that 
there should be peace and justice in the land, that the ancient 
laws should be restored, and that he would " spare neither 
friend nor foe who resisted." Accordingly those nobles who 
would not surrender their castles were besieged and com- 
pelled to yield. Henry also made reforms in the courts. 

The Circuit Courts. A court is a means of securing to 
every man what rightfully belongs to him, and of fixing the 
punishment of those who break the laws. In the time of the 
Norman kings the county or shire court became the most 
important. The judges were the chief lords of the county, 
assisted by the king's sheriff, whose duty it was to see that 
justice was meted out to the offender. The sheriff was also 
the collector of the king's revenue, which came from a tax 
on the land, from the aids and reliefs of the feudal system, 
and from the fines imposed by the courts. In the troubled 
times of the preceding reign, the barons had driven out 
the king's sheriffs and conducted the courts for their own 
benefit. The unfortunate people who fell into their hands 
were sure to be fined, whether guilty or innocent, and the 
fine went to the lord instead of to the king. 

Henry put a stop to these evils by carrying out more fully 
a practice that his grandfather, Henry L, had begun. He 
divided the kingdom into circuits and appointed men, called 
"the king's judges," who were to go through the country 
holding court in each hundred and county, hearing the suits 
of the people and punishing criminals. These judges did 
not fear to enter the estates and castles of the proudest nobles 
in the land. They also assisted the sheriff in the collection of 



78 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [1154 

taxes. The people soon came to have the greatest respect 
for the king's court. The feudal courts held by the barons 
were abolished. 

Jury Trials. Besides the ordeals of fire and water, and 
the Norman custom of wager of battle whereby contestants 
settled their dispute by a combat, Henry revived or established 
an agency for determining a man's guilt or innocence which 
we still use, — the grand jury. Wherever the king's judges 
held court, the sheriff would summon twelve men to form a 
jury. It was their duty to bring before the judges every per- 
son in their hundred who in their opinion had committed a 
crime. In Henry's time, if the accused pleaded not guilty 
and the jury could not prove his guilt, he was sent to the 
ordeal by cold water; this consisted in throwing the accused 
into a pond; if he floated without swimming, he was held 
innocent. In later times it became and still is the duty of 
a jury to pronounce an accused person guilty or innocent 
according to the evidence brought before them. Such a 
jury we call a trial jury. 

Taking Shield Money was another way in which Henry 
crushed the power of the ba'rons. 

Every tenant of the king was bound to keep for the king's 
use a certain number of trained knights armed and mounted. 
But in the last reign the barons had used these soldiers to 
fight their own battles, and not the king's. In time of peace, 
these knights, who despised any employment except war, 
would enter the service of some foreign king, or go on a 
crusade to fight the infidels, or, if they remained at home, 
they would prey upon the defenseless people. Two measures 
adopted by Henry put a stop to these evils. 

Instead of asking a soldier of his tenant, he taxed him 
" shield money," that is, enough money to pay a soldier. A 
baron who was bound to furnish ten knights now paid the 
king a tax sufficient to hire ten knights. When the king 



11G4] HENRY II. 79 

wanted soldiers, he hired them where he pleased. If he did 
not want them, he put the money into his treasury. As the 
barons were unable to support their knights and pay the tax 
too, they had to disband them; and so large numbers of 
knights were obliged to make homes for themselves and en- 
gage in some useful occupation. 

The second measure consisted in arming the people. Every 
freeman must be provided with spear and bow, or with sword 
and armor, according to his station. This was the old Anglo- 
Saxon system, which enabled Harold II. to raise a large army 
in six days. The people were quick to see the benefit of this 
reform, while the barons regarded it as a humiliation. 

Relations of Church and State. In order to understand 
the quarrel of Henry with the church and the Archbishop of 
Canterbury, we must see how the church was related to the 
government. 

Christianity was established in England by the mission- 
aries sent by the Pope. Augustine, the first missionary, be- 
came the first Archbishop of Canterbury and primate of the 
church in England. When there were several Saxon king- 
doms, constantly engaged in war, there was always one 
church, peaceful and united. The union in the church 
helped to bring about unity in the state, and to preserve it. 
Feudal relations among the Saxons did not extend to the 
clergy; but with the coming of the Normans, the holders of 
the estates belonging to the church were obliged to take the 
oath of allegiance to the king, to render military service, and 
to perform other feudal obligations. The bishops and arch- 
bishops in England were always active in political affairs. 
We find Dunstan the leading statesman in the time of the 
later Saxon kings, and after that time nearly every wise 
statesman was a churchman. 

William I. had kept the church in subjection to the state, 
but about the time he came to the throne the Pope began to 



80 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [1164 

make the church everywhere independent of the state and 
superior to it. We have seen what compromises Henry I. 
made with the church in regard to the appointment of 
bishops. The control of the bishops had become especially 
important because of a change in the manner of trying ac- 
cused clericals, — ■ priests, deacons, and monks of all ranks, — 
including nearly all the educated men in the kingdom. In 
the Saxon times, the bishop and sheriff presided over the same 
court, in which all classes of criminals were tried. But in 
the reign of William I. the bishop's court for the trial of 
clerical offenders was separated from that of the sheriff. 
Moreover, the penalties imposed in the bishop's court were 
much milder than those used in the other courts. No clerical, 
for instance, was sentenced to death, even for murder. 

The Constitutions of Clarendon were drawn up at a 
meeting of the lords and bishops of the realm at Clarendon 
in Wiltshire. They were intended to secure equal punish- 
ment for clericals and laymen guilty of the same offense, 
and to increase the king's power. A clerk charged with a 
secular offense was to be tried in a secular court. But if he 
was charged with an offense against the church, the church 
might try him. The constitutions forbade church appoint- 
ments or appeals to the Pope without the consent of the king, 
and in other ways tended to reduce the power of the clergy. 
These laws, as affecting the church, must be agreed to by the 
Archbishop of Canterbury, who was the representative of the 
Pope in England. If he should refuse, it would make no end 
of trouble for Henry. 

Thomas a Becket was the son of a returned crusader 
and a Saracen lady. There is a very pretty romance told 
of Thomas's father and mother, which you will find in the 
story books. Thomas received a careful education in an 
English abbey, and in Paris. Returning to England, he 
became an archdeacon in the church. His brilliant qualities 



1170] 



HENRY II. 



81 



brought him at once into favor with the young king. Tn a 
short time he became chancellor, or chief minister. He wrote 
the king's letters, kept his accounts, and was his confidential 
adviser. Presently the king had him elected Archbishop of 
Canterbury. He chose Becket for the primate of the Eng- 
lish church, supposing that his long-time friend and chancellor 
would do anything that he desired. But as soon as Becket 
entered his high office, he thought more of preserving the 
privileges of his order than of helping on the reforms of the 
king, and he refused 
to approve the Consti- 
tutions of Clarendon. 
The king, however, 
put these laws into op- 
eration without the 
archbishop's consent, 
and priests and dea- 
cons who had com- 
mitted murder, - rob- 
bery, or other crimes 
were " carried in carts 
before the judges just 
as though they were 
ordinary men." 

The Murder of 
Becket. In order to 
insure a peaceful suc- 
cession to the throne, 
Henry adopted a cus- 
tom in use generally 
among the kingdoms of Europe, of having his eldest 
son crowned during his own reign. As Archbishop Becket 
had left England, the Archbishop of York and two other 
bishops acted in his place at the coronation ceremonies. 




Mukdek of Becket ; from an 
Illuminated Manuscript. 



82 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [1170 

When Becket returned to England, he excommunicated these 
clergymen, that is, declared them out of the church. When 
the news of this was brought to Henry, in Normandy, he 
leaped up in passion and cried out in the presence of his court, 
"Among all the cowards here who eat my bread, is there not 
one who will rid me of this insolent priest ? " Four of his 
knights immediately crossed the Channel and set out for 
Canterbury. They forced their way into the palace of the 
archbishop and demanded that he recall the excommunica- 
tion. When he refused to do so they followed him into the 
church and slew him before the altar. 

The Result of the Murder was to arouse much popular 
sympathy for the cause of the clergy. When the news of his 
death, or martyrdom, spread through the land, there was a 
general outcry of horror against the king and the murderers. 
The Pope declared him to be a saint, and for three hundred 
and fifty years no shrine received the veneration of more 
numerous or devoted pilgrims than that of St. Thomas a 
Becket. 

The murderers fled the country never to return, and en- 
tered service against the infidel. Henry, when he heard the 
news of the murder, foresaw the storm and prepared to meet 
it. He immediately sent envoys to the Pope, promising to. 
grant whatever terms might be required for absolution, — 
that is, for the forgiveness of his sin, — and insisting that he 
never meant by his hasty words that Becket should be slain. 
After withdrawing to Ireland for a time, he went barefoot 
to the shrine of Becket, and asked forgiveness on his knees 
at the grave of the dead man. The monks of the abbey 
scourged him with rods, and he then received absolution. 

The Invasion of Ireland was made by Henry with the 
intention of making his youngest son, John, king of that 
island. He allowed Kicharcl de Clare, who was surnamed 
" Strongbow," to enlist English soldiers for this adventure. 



1189] HENRY II. 83 

A feud among the native Irish kings had compelled Dermot, 
the King of Leinster, to fly from the island. He now re- 
turned, and joined his native forces to those of Strongbow. 
They subdued the eastern part of the island, and acknowl- 
edged Henry as their king; but in time most of the English- 
ISForman barons in Ireland became thoroughly Irish. The 
English part of the island, known as "the Pale," was soon 
reduced to a small area around Dublin. It was not until the 
close of Elizabeth's reign, more than four hundred years 
later, that the whole island was subdued. 

Henry's Troubles with his Sons made his later years 
heavy with sorrow. He had crowned his eldest son, Henry, 
as his successor, but this young man was impatient to come 
into possession of power, and wished his father to give him 
Normandy or England at once. Being refused, he joined 
his brothers Eichard and Geoffrey, and King Louis of 
France, in an attempt to take away from King Henry his 
French provinces. Queen Eleanor also joined her sons 
against her husband, and the king was obliged to shut her 
up in a strong castle, where he kept her the rest of his life. 
He also subdued his sons and defeated King Louis in this war. 

Prince Henry sickened and died a few years later, during 
another rebellion, and it is said that no one shed a tear at his 
death. His treachery to his father, who was only too kind 
and forgiving, to him, brought upon him the dislike of even 
those who pretended to be his friends. 

Eichard and the new king of France, Philip II., made war 
on King Henry in 1188 and drove him out of his father's 
old province of Anjou. The poor king was ill, broken in 
spirit, and tired of life. His only desire was to leave the 
kingdom to John, the only one of his sons who had been 
faithful to him. But he had no heart to fight against Eich- 
ard. He surrendered to Philip and among other things prom- 
ised to forgive all the rebels. On opening the list given him, 



84 



THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS 



[1189 



he saw among the first names that of John, who had secretly 
joined his enemies. This broke the old king's heart, and 
turning his face to the wall he said, " I have nothing left to 
care for now. Let all things go their way." A few days 
after this, he died. 

Richard I., 1189-1199. 

Richard came to the throne without opposition, although 
his elder brother Geoffrey had left an infant son, and although 
his father had intended to leave the kingdom to John. Eich- 
ard was crowned with great pomp at Westminster. The 
ceremonies attending his coronation have been followed in 
the case of every English sovereign since his time. 

The Third Crusade. About two years before this, news 
came that Jerusalem, where the Christians had set up a 




Crusaders. 

kingdom in 1099, had been taken by the great Mohammedan 
leader Saladin. Both Eichard and his father took the cross, 
that is, agreed to go on the crusade to deliver the holy city; 
and now all Europe was aflame with enthusiasm. Eichard's 
friend Philip, King of France, was going, and Frederick, the 
greatest of the German Emperors, was on the way with a 
large army. 



1191] RICHARD I. 85 

Two months after receiving his crown, Richard began his 
preparations. He needed vast sums of money, and his king- 
dom was of value to him only as a means of raising it. For 
he was really a foreigner; he had been brought up in Nor- 
mandy and could not speak a sentence in English. During 
his reign of ten years, he spent only a few months in England, 
and he governed his kingdom through a minister. 

In order to raise part of the needed money, he sold 
offices; the sheriffs, judges, and bishops purchased appoint- 
ments. Those who held office paid in order to keep it. The 
Scottish king purchased his independence for a huge sum. 
Many of the larger towns purchased charters and the privi- 
lege of governing themselves. The king, as well as many 
of the nobles, compelled the Jews to lend vast amounts of 
money, and then massacred them by the hundred to be re- 
lieved of the necessity of paying it back. The estates belong- 
ing to the king were sold to the highest bidder. On his 
enemies, he imposed fines; from his friends he exacted pres- 
ents, and everybody was taxed. The same processes were 
repeated when Eichard passed over to Normandy on his way 
to the East. His final preparations were made in France, in 
connection with Philip. A hundred thousand men were 
marshaled beneath their banners, and marched southward to 
Marseilles, whence vast fleets transported them to Palestine. 

Meanwhile the German army had gone on by land; but 
Emperor Frederick was drowned in crossing a river, and only 
a few of 'his men succeeded in fighting their w T ay to Acre. 
This was a Moslem stronghold on the coast of Palestine, 
blocking the way to Jerusalem. The combined crusaders 
captured it, but only after the loss of many men. Richard 
was so domineering and jealous that King Philip quarreled 
with him and went home; and before long Richard also in- 
sulted Duke Leopold, the leader of the Germans. Weakened 
by dissensions, the crusaders accomplished little more. Jaffa 



86 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [1191 

was taken, and Kichard led his army almost to Jerusalem; 
but it was now much weaker than Saladin's, and Kichard 
had to give up the struggle. Before turning back he ascended 
the Mount of Olives, whence he was told he could see within 
the walls of Jerusalem. But refusing to look, he covered 
his face and turned away, saying that he was not worthy to 
look upon the Holy City, if he could not deliver it from the 
enemies of the cross. 

In the next hundred years there were several more crusades ; 
but excepting a few years Jerusalem remained in Moham- 
medan hands. The chief effect of the crusades was to make 
western Europe acquainted with two higher civilizations — 
the Arabic and the Greek — and to give an impulse to trade. 

Richard's Return to England. In returning overland 
through Austria Kichard fell into the hands of his enemy 
Duke Leopold. In those days it was a piece of rare good 
fortune to get hold of a king. Leopold turned his prisoner 
over to his superior lord, the German Emperor, who locked 
him up in a strong castle until his mother and friends in 
England paid a heavy ransom for him. 

During Richard's absence there had grown up serious 
trouble between his minister and the nobles. The King of 
France had conspired with John and several great barons 
to keep Kichard a prisoner and place John upon the throne. 
Civil war had broken out, when Kichard landed in England 
in 1194. The mere report of Richard's arrival scattered 
John's followers at once, so great was the dread of his prowess 
as a warrior. He regarded the rebellion with such contempt 
that he scarcely deigned to punish the leaders, and he for- 
gave his brother for his treason. After a two months' stay 
in his kingdom, he gathered his soldiers together and sailed 
away to France. 

Wars with Philip and Death. After Philip's return from 
the Holy Land, he had prepared to attack Richard's posses- 



1199] RICHARD I. 87 

sions in France, and the rest of this reign is a tedious account 
of treaties, truces, and alliances which were broken as soon 
as made. Eichard, however, held all his provinces and left 
them to be lost by his brother a few years later. In 1199 
word came to Eichard that one of his vassals, the Viscount 
of Limoges, had found upon his estate a buried treasure of 
silver and gold. Eichard asserted his royal right to all the 
treasure. The viscount would not give all, although he sur- 
rendered the larger part of it. Eichard accordingly besieged 
his castle at Chaluz, and swore he would take it by storm 
and hang every man within. The garrison offered to yield 
if he would promise safety, but were refused, and prepared 
to defend the castle to the last extremity. Before the castle 
was taken Eichard was wounded by an arrow shot from the 
battlements. After twelve clays of suffering he died. 

Knighthood and Chivalry. Eichard stands out in his- 
tory as the ideal knight of the days of chivalry. His bravery 
in battle gained him the 
surname of Cceur de Lion, 
or " Lion-Heart," He 
fought more for the love 
of fighting than for vic- 
tory, and treated his con- 
quered enemy with gen- 
erosity. He even pardoned 
the archer who from the 
walls of his own castle shot 
the arrow that caused his 

death. '■ What harm have „ 

T , Conferring Knighthood on the Field 

1 done you, that you have op battle ; from an illuminated 

killed me \" asked Eichard. Manuscript. 

The archer replied, " You slew with your own hand my father 
and brothers." "I forgive you my death," returned the 
king, and ordered him to be released. 




88 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [1189 

The Normans introduced into England the form of military 
education which ended in knighthood. The boys of noble 
parentage who were poor were put under the care of some 
distinguished noble, at whose castle they grew up and re- 
ceived their training. They first served as pages, their duties 
being to carry messages, to attend the ladies, and to learn 
the details of feudal service, and the duties and exercises of 
knighthood. At fourteen, the page became a squire. He 
now had to attend his lord in battle, carry his lance, assist him 
in putting on his armor, and rescue or defend him if he was 
wounded. At the age of twenty-one the squire became a 
knight and a member of the " chivalry/' as the order of 
knights was called. 

He was initiated into knighthood usually with a great deal 
of ceremony. He first had to fast and watch a long time ; then 
a discourse was made to him on the various duties and qual- 
ities which belonged to a knight. He then knelt before his 
lord and promised to be faithful to him "with life and 
limb." Finally he received his armor and weapons, his 
golden spurs were buckled on, and the lord, striking him on 
the shoulder with the flat of his sword, said, " In the name of 
God, of St. Michael, and of St. George, I dub thee Knight ; be 
brave, bold, and loyal." It was the duty of the knight not 
only to fight bravely, but to be gentle and merciful; to be 
kind to the weak, to treat women with courtesy and respect — 
in one word, to be chivalrous. 

The Tournament was made by Eichard of great impor- 
tance in England to give the young men practice in the use 
of arms. This was a mock battle fought by mounted knights 
in full armor, but with blunted weapons. A large field was 
leveled and fenced in, called the " lists." Two companies of 
knights would then, be chosen, taking their places at opposite 
ends of the lists. At a given signal they charged, meeting 
in the center with a terrible shock, the object of each knight 



1199] RICHARD I. 89 

being to unhorse his adversary. If all the knights were un- 
horsed, they fought on foot with swords until one side yielded. 
The victors' names were then proclaimed by a herald, and the 
victors received prizes from the hands of the lady who had 
been chosen queen of the tournament. Sometimes two cham- 
pions would joust by themselves, and then the victor would 
fight any one who chose to dispute his championship. 

The People, during KicharcPs long absence from England, 
had made great progress in the art of carrying on their own 
government. Under the rule of Hubert Walter, the king's 
minister, or " justiciar," as he was then called, they were en- 
couraged and trained in this respect. He taught them to 
choose assessors to levy and collect taxes; to elect juries for 
the courts and representatives to transact any business that 
needed to be done. He thus prepared the people to take a 
more active part in the government of England. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Who were benefited by Henry II. 's reforms? In what way? 

2. Why did the church object to the Clarendon Constitutions? 

3. Compare the jury of Henry's time with the compurgators of the 

Saxons. 

4. How did Richard's reign affect the cities? The people? 

5. Why were the king's courts better than those of the shire? 

6. What does the story of Becket teach about the power of the church? 

7. What led to the Crusades? How did they affect Europe? 

8. How did the training of a knight fit him for life? Describe the 

tournament ; its value ; good and bad results. 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Thomas a Becket. DeVere, St. Thomas of Canterbury ; Green, 

Short History, pp. 106-112. 

2. The Crusade of Richaed I. Archer, Crusade of Richard I.; 

Scott, The Talisman, Ch. XXVII. 

3. Knighthood and Chivalry. Green, Short History, pp. 182-3 ; 

Blaisdell, Stories of English History, 96-100. 

4. Richard's Imprisonment and Escape. Morris, English Histor- 

ical Tales, pp. 87-100. 



90 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [H99 

B. The Winning of the Charter. 
John, 1 199-12 16. 

King John had all the bad qualities of the Norman house,, 
and none of the good ones. He was avaricious, cruel, and 
desperately wicked. When fortune smiled upon him. he 
was haughty and contemptuous; when in difficulties, abject 
and cowardly. It was said of him that " he neither feared 
God nor regarded man." His coronation oath required him 
"to defend the church, to maintain justice, to make good 
laws and abolish evil customs." He did none of these things. 
His very meanness and cruelty, however, had good results; 
it drove his subjects to revolt and put a check upon his power 
in the form of the Magna Charta, or Great Charter, which has 
ever since been the safeguard of the people's liberties. 

Loss of the French Provinces. The lawful heir to the 
throne was not John, but Arthur, Duke of Brittany, the son 
of his elder brother Geoffrey. Eichard had wished Arthur 
to succeed him, but he was only a boy, and the old Saxon 
custom of electing from the royal family a man who could 
lead in battle, prevailed. John was so thoroughly hated in 
France that the people refused to acknowledge him, and sup- 
ported the claim of Arthur. As a vassal of the King of 
France, Arthur called upon his lord to protect his rights in 
the French provinces, and King Philip put an army at Ar- 
thur's disposal. 

In the war which followed, Arthur laid siege to a castle in 
Poitou where Queen Eleanor was living. Though she had 
been John's strongest supporter, Arthur hoped by taking her 
prisoner to secure her aid for himself. But John suddenly 
appeared and raised the siege, taking Arthur prisoner. He 
shut the boy up in Eouen and, it is said, commanded the 
jailer to put out his eyes, but Arthur's pleadings were so pitiful 
that he was spared. A short time after this, Arthur disap- 



1214] JOHN &1 

peared and was never seen again. The tradition is that his 
uncle came to see him one night, accompanied by his squire, 
and that they took the boy out in a boat on the Seine, and 
there murdered him and sank his body in the river. 

Whether John committed the murder or not, Philip accused 
him of it, and summoned him to Paris to answer for the 
death of his vassal. According to the feudal law, as John 
and Arthur were both his vassals, so far as their French 
provinces were concerned, Philip had a right to try John in 
his own court. As John refused to appear, Philip declared his 
estates forfeited and immediately took possession of Anjou, 
Normandy, and the other provinces north of the Loire which 
had belonged to the English king. 

When the news was brought to John that Philip was tak- 
ing one castle after another, and that the people were accept- 
ing his rule, he said, u Let them go ; by and by I will recover 
in a day what they have taken in a year." By and by he 
tried, but ' his army was terribly defeated in the battle of 
Bouvines in Flanders. By that battle England and Nor- 
mandy became separated. Since the Norman conquest, there 
had been two races in England, Normans and English ; 
henceforth there was to be but one. There had been two 
languages, but from this time they gradually blend. The 
proud Norman could no longer point to the despised English 
as a conquered race, for his own country had now been con- 
quered, and he must call himself an Englishman. " Thus 
the two races, so long hostile, found at last that they had 
common interests and common enemies." 

Stephen Langton. John's second quarrel concerned the 
appointment of an Archbishop of Canterbury. We have seen 
that when this important place became vacant, the king usu- 
ally selected some one to fill it. When John ordered the 
monks of Canterbury to elect his treasurer, the Bishop of Nor- 
wich, they secretly chose one of their own number, their sub- 

NlVER 6. 



92 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [1205 

prior Reginald, and sent him off to Rome to be confirmed by 
the Pope. He began to chatter about his new dignity, how- 
ever, as soon as he had crossed the Channel, and the action 
of the monks came to the ears of John. In a great rage he 
compelled them to elect his own candidate. 

It happened that the papal throne was occupied at this time 
by one of the wisest and greatest of the Popes, Innocent III. 
He sent for some of the monks, and by his advice they elected 
a learned and pious Englishman, then at Rome, Stephen 
Langton. 

But John refused to allow Langton to land in England, 
and began to plunder the monks. He drove them out of the 
convent with armed men and compelled them to leave the 
country. Innocent then laid England under an interdict; 
that is to say, he forbade the clergy to perform any. church 
service. When the appointed day came the churches were 
instantly closed. No marriage service could be performed, 
and the dead had to be buried without a prayer in unhallowed 
ground. The sudden cutting off of all forms of religion 
filled the people with horror. Deprivation of the forgive- 
ness of their sins and of consecrated burial meant shutting 
against them the gate of heaven. John, however, was ap- 
parently content to stay out of heaven anyway, and he took 
especial pleasure in confiscating the property of all the clergy 
who obeyed the interdict. 

When the interdict had lasted a year the Pope excommuni- 
cated the king. This deprived him of all connection with 
the church and forbade all pious persons to associate with him. 
As John treated the excommunication with as much con- 
tempt as the interdict, Innocent threatened to declare his 
throne vacant, to absolve his subjects from the oath of al- 
legiance, and to give his kingdom to Philip the King of 
France. Philip quickly gathered an army to make good his 
claim. 



05 



1214] JOHN 93 

The situation threw John into a panic of fear. He knelt 
at the feet of the Pope's legate and took the crown from his 
head. By this act he gave his kingdom to the Pope. He 
then took the same oath to the Pope that vassals took to 
their lords, and received his crown again, on condition that 
he pay to the Pope annually the sum of one thousand marks. 
He was no longer a sovereign, but a vassal. Langton was 
received as archbishop, the property of the monks was re- 
stored, and Philip, who had already met defeat off the coast 
of Flanders, gave up his idea of invasion. 

The Great Charter. It was just after these events that 
John tried to regain his French provinces north of the Loire, 
and lost the battle of Bouvines (1214). After this failure 
he brought to England soldiers hired in France, determined 
to master the barons who had refused to fight for him, and 
who were making plans, under the direction of Stephen Lang- 
ton, to protect the English people against the king. For 
John not only took away the property of his subjects by force, 
but got rid of his opponents by poison and secret assassina- 
tion. No man's life was safe. Many were thrown into dun- 
geons and left to starve, never being brought to trial for 
their pretended offenses. 

Once he sent to demand the children of a Sussex baron, 
William of Braose, as hostages. But the baron's wife said, 
" He did not take such good care of his nephew that I should 
want to entrust my children to him." For this, she and her 
children were put in prison and left to die of hunger. He 
once demanded a large sum of money from a rich Jew, and 
when refused, he locked up the Jew and ordered one of his 
teeth to be pulled out each day. After losing seven, the Jew 
paid the money. 

In 1213 Langton proposed to the barons that John be 
asked to reissue the charter given by Henry I. The next 
year the barons met in the church at Bury St. Edmunds, in, 



94 



THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS 



[1214 



Suffolk, and one by one they swore at the altar that if the 
king did not grant the charter they would begin war against 
him. 

When the charter was presented to the king by a large 
number of barons, he turned pale and trembled as he looked 
into the stern and resolute faces before him. " Give me till 
Easter to think about this," he said. The barons understood 
him, and when they presented the charter again, at Oxford, 
they had two thousand armed knights at their back. Langton 
read aloud the demands of the people, which ended with the 




The Barons Taking Oath against John. 

sentence: "And if these claims are not immediately. granted, 
our arms shall do us justice." 

John angrily refused the charter. The barons at once 
levied war against the king, calling themselves " the army 



1215] JOHN • 95 

of God and of the Holy Church." Eobert EitzWalter was 
elected commander, and London opened her gates to the 
army. When John saw that further delay meant the loss of 
his crown, he asked the leaders to name a day and place 
where he could meet them. 

" Let the day," they replied, " be the 15th of June and the 
place Kunnymede." And there on the Thames near London 
the nobility of England and the representatives of the peo- 
ple met the king with a few followers, and compelled him to 
sign the Great Charter, or Magna Charta, which became the 
foundation stone of English liberty. Besides the provisions 
of Henry's charter it contained many new ones, for the pro- 
tection of life, liberty, and property. It has been confirmed 
by more than thirty kings and parliaments since that time, 
and is still considered the most important document in the 
history of the English people. 

Provisions of the Charter. In the charter the king 
agrees to levy no tax without the consent of a general council 
of the kingdom. " ~No freeman," it declares, " shall be taken 
or imprisoned or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or 
banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we pass upon 
him or send upon him, unless by the lawful judgment of his 
peers, or by the law of the land. We will sell to no man, nor 
will we deny to any man either justice or right." These two 
are the most famous sentences in the Great Charter, and their 
meaning is this : The King of England was henceforth not 
to take the people's money, nor put them in prison and 
punish them as John had done. Such things could be done 
only after a fair trial before a jury of their fellow-countrymen. 
The king was bound to obey the law as much as the humblest 
subject. 

Final Troubles and Death of John. The king had no 
mind to live up to such principles as these. The Pope now 
took his part and issued an order declaring the charter of 



96 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [1215 

no effect. He also pronounced the curse of the church 
against the barons and suspended Langton from his office for 
taking part in the matter. The charter said that John 
should dismiss his hired troops, but as soon as he got away 
from Bunnymede he hired more and set out into the north 
of England to punish the barons who had led the movement 
against him. And the barons did not suffer alone. Never 
since the days of the Conqueror were such horrors known in 
England. The people were murdered, tortured, and plun- 
dered. Castles, cities, and even the humble homes of the 
poor were burned. In the morning, John himself applied 
the torch to the home where he had slept at night. 

The barons had in the mean time invited the King of 
France to come to their help with an army, promising in re- 
turn the crown of England to his son Louis. Louis came 
and laid siege to some castles held by the retainers of John, 
when suddenly matters were brought to a standstill by the 
death of the king. As his army, in its career of murder and 
plunder, was crossing the Wash, the tide suddenly rose and 
carried away his baggage, including a large amount of money. 
His rage at this misfortune made him ill, and a few days 
later he died. 

Henry III., 1216-1272. 

The People and the Barons fought together against King 
John. Under the early Norman kings we have seen the 
people fighting against the barons. But now that the king 
had grown strong enough to oppress both the barons and the 
people, we find the last two combining their powers against 
a wicked king. The situation must have been desperate in- 
deed when they were willing to accept a French king. But 
when they saw that it was the purpose of Louis to take away 
their estates and give them to his French followers, they 
gave the crown to Henry, the nine-year-old son of John. 



1233] 



HENRY III. 



97 



Henry's Guardians. As Henry III. was under age the 
kingdom was put under the care of a guardian chosen by 
the Great Council. The French were driven from the coun- 
try, and the charter was reissued in a form which left out the 
provision that the king could levy a general tax only by the 
consent of the council. 

After the first guardian's death, Hubert de Burgh became 
the chief power in England. His great work was in driving 
out the foreign soldiers 
that John had brought 
in from France, and to 
whom he had given 
large estates. Hu- 
bert's motto was 
" England for the 
English." Henry, who 
became of age about 
this time, favored the 
French, and had Hu- 
bert put in prison. 

Henry's Government. Henry reminds us of Edward the 
Confessor in his liking for foreigners. His wife was a 
French lady, and as his mother also was French, it took a 
large number of estates, castles, and lordships to supply all 
their relatives that came swarming over to England. Only 
a few leavings remained for the Englishmen themselves. To 
add to the troubles, the Pope levied heavy taxes upon the king 
and the clergy to carry on his Italian wars and to support a 
new crusade against the infidel. 

As soon as Henry was freed from the restraints of his 
guardians, he began the old practice of taxing the people 
without consulting their willingness in the matter. Unlike 
the kings who came before him, he lived at peace with the 
church. He rebuilt Westminster Abbey as it is to-day. He 




Westminster Abbey. 



98 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [1258 

built the cathedral at Salisbury and one hundred and forty- 
seven other churches and convents in various places through- 
out England. His extravagance at home and his lavish ex- 
penditures on foreigners, however, at last drove his people to 
revolt. 

Provisions of Oxford. In 1258 there was a failure of 
crops in the land, owing to continued heavy rains. Many 
thousands of people died of starvation. In the midst of the 
general distress, Henry demanded for the Pope a third of the 
entire revenues of England. When the king entered the 
Great Council, or Parliament, which had been called to West- 
minster to consider the condition of the realm, there was an 
ominous clatter of swords. He looked timidly around and 
asked, "Am I a prisoner ? " 

" No, sir," said Eoger Bigod, " but your extravagance and 
your foreign favorites have brought misery upon the country, 
and we demand reform." 

This Parliament drew up a series of resolutions which were 
known as the Provisions of Oxford. The chief feature of 
these was the appointment of a committee of the barons to 
supervise the actions of the king. The Pope complicated 
matters by declaring the Provisions null and void, and releas- 
ing the king from his oath to observe them. The whole dis- 
pute was then referred to Louis IX. of France, who decided 
in favor of the king. The barons, however, refused to accept 
the decision, and both sides prepared to settle the dispute by 
open war. 

At Lewes the king's army was surprised by the barons. 
Though Prince Echvard defeated a section of the barons' 
army, the barons carried the day, and captured both the king 
and the prince. 

Simon de Montfort was the leader in this Barons' War. 
He was a Frenchman by birth, but had inherited an earldom 
in England through his mother, and had become the most 



12G5] HENRY III. 99 

English of Englishmen. He was a soldier and statesman of 
the highest order, and was popularly known, on account of 
his strict justice and moral worth, as " Sir Simon the Kight- 
eous." Henry stood in mortal terror of Earl Simon. Once 
when he was rowing on the Thames in his pleasure barge, a 
thunderstorm came on. The king, who was dreadfully afraid, 
took refuge in a garden along the river, where he was met by 
de Montfort. 

" Why do you fear ? " asked the earl of the trembling 
king. " The storm has passed over." 

The king replied, " I fear thunder and lightning beyond 
measure, but I am more afraid of you than of anything else 
in the world." 

Some of the barons had fought against the king for self- 
ish reasons, but Simon insisted that all the people should be 
represented in the government, so that whatever was done in 
Parliament would receive the support of the whole nation. 

De Montfort's Parliament was called in 1265, the year 
after the battle of Lewes. Writs were issued to certain cities 
and boroughs, asking each of them to send two representatives, 
and two knights were sent from each shire. These, together 
with the bishops and barons, made the English Parliament 
complete. This Parliament did no work of importance, but 
the people had been taught by Simon the manner in which 
they might exercise their power, an important matter in time 
of need. 

Evesham. But the king's supporters had not laid down 
their arms. Many barons were afraid that Simon was getting 
too much power. What they wanted was a forceful and 
patriotic king who could rule by himself, and not a king ruled 
by Sir Simon, be he ever so righteous. Prince Edward had 
been held as a hostage after the battle of Lewes, but he 
escaped from his guardians. Joining his forces to those of 
the dissatisfied barons, he attacked Simon's party at a dis- 



100 THE EARLY PLANTAGENET KINGS [12(35 

advantage at Evesham and utterly defeated it. When the 
earl saw the great array led by the prince, he said, " They are 
approaching with wisdom ; let us therefore commend our souls 
to God, for our bodies are Edward's." He asked no quarter, 
but died with his son, sword in hand, in a little valley where 
the carnage was thickest. 

General Progress in the Time of Henry III. Henry's 
taste for the fine arts led to a great improvement in English 
architecture. The heavy, massive style of the Norman castle 
with its round arches and prison-like exterior gave place to 
the Gothic style, characterized by the pointed arch, tapering 
spires, and stained glass windows, giving to the whole struc- 
ture a graceful and lofty appearance. The century in which 
Henry lived was famous throughout Europe as an age of 
architecture. The building trades were organized into guilds, 
or societies, which gave the greatest attention to training their 
apprentices into finished workmen. 

The Friars and their Charitable Work. It was in 
Henry's reign that Begging Friars, followers of Saint Francis 
and Saint Dominic, made their way into England. Most 
of the earlier monks had shut themselves up in convents, 
where they devoted themselves to learning and to the salvation 
of their own souls; but these new brothers went among the 
humblest people, tending the sick, teaching the ignorant, and 
reforming the vile. They did a splendid work in spreading 
intelligence among the lowest classes. 

Language and Literature. For a century and a half 
after the Norman conquest, the English tongue was a despised 
language and was not used in writing. But in the thirteenth 
century it began to come into use again, and a number of 
short songs and ballads and two longer poems were written. 
The first of the longer poems was a history of England called 
the " Brut," from Brutus, the supposed founder of Britain, 
written by Layamon, a priest. The second was the " Ormu- 



1278] HENRY III. 101 

lum," an arrangement in verse of parts of the New Testament. 
The following are the first two lines of the " Ormulum" : 

" Thiss boc iss nemmned Orrmulum 
Forrthi that Orrm itt wrohhte." 
(This book is named Ormulum, for the reason that Orm wrote it.) 

Roger Bacon was a Franciscan monk who lived at Oxford, 
devoting his time to the study of science. He discovered gun- 
powder and predicted steamboats, locomotives, airships, tele- 
scopes, and suspension bridges. His experiments and discov- 
eries were so wonderful that he was accused of receiving the 
aid of the devil, and was imprisoned in a dungeon for ten 
years. People were not allowed to read his writings until long 
afterwards. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. What three quarrels make up the story of John's reign? How 

did each end? 

2. How did the loss of the French provinces affect the people of 

England? 

3. Why did the people gain power in the reigns of John and Henry 

III.? 

4. What did Hubert de Burgh and Simon de Montfort do for the 

people? What rights did the Great Charter secure to them? 

5. Describe the effects of interdict and of excommunication. 

6. Name some good and some bad features of Henry III.'s reign. 

7. Compare the usefulness of the Friars with that of the older orders 

of monks. 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Great Charter. Green, Short History, pp. 122-132. 

2. Prince Arthur. Shakspeare, King John. 

3. Sir Simon the Righteous. Green, Short History (see index). 

4. The Black and Gray Friars. Green, Short History, pp. 147- 

152 ; Guest and Underwood, Handbook of English History, pp. 
212-215. 



V. THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS. 1 

A. The Wars with Scotland. 

Edward I., 1272-1307. 

The Greatest of the Plantagenets, Edward I., born in 
1239, was a grown-up man when he became king. He was 
tall and commanding in appearance, a superb horseman, and 
accomplished in the use of weapons. But more than this, he 
was wise and prudent in his actions, seldom lost control 
of his temper, and was faithful to his family, his friends, and 
his people. His wife, Eleanor, the daughter of the King of 
Castile, accompanied him on a crusade to the Holy Land. 
Edward became such a terror to the Saracens that an attempt 
was made to get rid of him by assassination. A Moslem 
fanatic gained access to his tent, and suddenly stabbed him 
in the arm with a poisoned dagger. The prince struck the 
would-be murderer dead, and Eleanor sucked the poison from 
the wound until a surgeon could be found to dress it. 

2 THE LATER PLANTAGENETS. 
Edward I. (1272-1307) (p. 75) 
Edward II. (1307-1327) 
Edward III. (1327-1377) 

! 

Edward, Lionel, John of Gaunt, Edmund, 

the Black Duke of Duke of Lancaster Duke of 

Prince Clarence I York 

Richard II. Philippa Henry IV. John Beaufort ? id J"4 

(1377-1399) | ( p . 133) | <P- 146 > 

Roger Mortimer, John Beaufort 

| Earl of March I 

I 1 Margaret Beaufort 

Edmund, Earl of March Anne Mortimer (P* 156 ) 

(p. 146) 
102 



1279] EDWARD I. 103 

Edward and Eleanor were greatly beloved by their people. 
When the queen died, her body was brought to Westminster 
for burial. At every halting place of the funeral procession 
Edward caused to be set up a richly ornamented cross, that 
those of after times might cherish her memory. Three of 
these crosses, one of which is Charing Cross in London, are 
still preserved. 

Edward's Policy. Edward had slain Earl Simon at Eves- 
ham, but continued his policy in keeping foreigners out of 
the country and in giving all classes of the people a share in 
the government. When he wanted to make a law that af- 
fected the barons, he called them to consult about it. And 
so with the farmers, the townsmen, and the merchants. In 
this way he secured many excellent laws to which the people 
gave a willing, obedience. 

Order Restored. The civil wars in the time of Henry 
III. had left the land infested by bands of robbers. A man's 
life was not safe if he traveled alone, and even the walled 
towns had to be carefully guarded. Once, at the time of a 
great fair in Boston, a company of robbers disguised them- 
selves as priests and gained entrance to the town. In the 
middle of the night they attacked and murdered all who 
resisted them, and got away with an immense amount of 
plunder. Edward ordered that every man from fifteen to 
sixty years of age should provide himself with arms, and all 
were bound to pursue and capture lawbreakers. The trees 
and bushes were cleared away from the sides of the roads, in 
order that travelers might not be waylaid by robbers, and the 
evils left by the former reign soon passed away. 

With the consent of Parliament, a higher export duty was 
levied on wool and leather. Another law, called the Statute 
of Mortmain, forbade the giving of any land to the church 
without the king's consent. Lands belonging to the church 
escaped certain feudal dues to the king, such as reliefs and 



10-i 



THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS 



[1270 



wardship. The clmrcli now owned a large part of England; 
besides, it had become the custom for some landholders to 
give their land to the church and then receive it back again 
as tenants on easy terms, simply to escape these dues. 

The Rulers of Wales' had, since the time of Athelstan 
and Edgar, acknowledged the English king as overlord. But 
when Edward summoned Llewellyn, the Prince of Wales, to 
attend his coronation, he refused. A fleet and an army 

soon obliged Llew- 
ellyn to submit. Six 
years later, news sud- 
denly came that 
large bands of Welsh 
had attacked the 
western counties and 
were murdering the 
people and carrying 
away their property. 
War began again and 
was pressed vigorous- 
ly. Llewellyn was defeated and slain, his brother David was 
put to death as a traitor, and Wales was annexed to England. 
The Welsh had an old tradition that none but a native-born 
prince should ever rule over them. While Edward and his 
queen were living at the castle of Carnarvon, which he had 
built, a son was born to them. The king showed the child 
to the people as their prince ; and they were satisfied to accept 
him, for he was born in the land according to the old prophecy. 
The prince afterward became King Edward II. ; and from 
that time on the title of Prince of Wales has usually been 
borne by the heir to the English throne. 

Expulsion of the Jews. Shortly after the conquest of 
Wales, the king by a royal edict expelled all the Jews from 
England. They were the money lenders of the country and 




Castle of Carnarvon. 



1296] EDWARD I. 105 

were useful to the king when money was needed quickly. 
The Jews had been shamefully treated in England. They 
were under the special protection of the king, but the kings 
"protected" them as men protect cattle which they fatten 
for slaughter. The people demanded their expulsion on the 
ground that they were usurers and extortioners. About six- 
teen thousand of them left the country, and very few dared 
to return. Until Cromwell's time, several hundred years 
later, we hear no more about Jews in England. 

Scottish Wars Begun. The year after the conquest of 
Wales, the King of Scotland was killed, leaving as nearest 
heir to the throne a granddaughter whose father was the 
King of Norway. Edward now proposed to marry his son, 
Prince Edward, to the Maid of Norway, hoping in this way 
to unite England and Scotland. The Scots agreed to this 
marriage ; but it was prevented by the death of the little maid 
(she was only seven years old) on the voyage to Scotland. 

So many claimants to the throne of Scotland now appeared, 
that the Scottish nobles agreed to let Edward select from 
among them the rightful heir. They also admitted Edward's 
claim that the Scottish king should do homage to him, as 
Scottish kings had unwillingly done a few times to the Saxon 
and Norman kings of England. Edward chose John Baliol 
to be King of Scotland, and received his oath of fealty. 

It was the right of any man who had lost a case at law in 
a vassal's court to appeal to the court of the lord to review 
the suit. The right of hearing appeals from Scottish courts 
had never been insisted on by the English kings; but Ed- 
ward now demanded this right. The Scots were so angry 
that they compelled their king to resist at the cost of war. 
Edward invaded Scotland with a strong force, defeated and 
captured Baliol at Dunbar (map, p. 106), declared the king- 
dom forfeited, and placed it under the control of English 
governors. 



106 



THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS 



[129G 




Scotland. 



The Stone of Destiny. At Scone was kept a wonderful 
block of stone on which the kings of Scotland always sat 
when they were crowned. This stone was said to be the very 
one on which Jacob rested his head when, in his dream, he 



1297] 



EDWARD I. 



107 



saw the angels ascending and descending a ladder let down 
from heaven. Edward now took it away to Westminster and 
placed it under the coronation chair of the kings of England, 
where you may see it to-day. 

The Model Parliament of 1295. Two years before the 
beginning of the Scottish war, trouble broke out between Ed- 
ward's province of Gascony in the 
south of France and the king of 
that country. Having two serious 
wars in prospect, Edward called 
together a full Parliament of the 
realm. As he said, " Any measure 
that concerns the whole nation 
should be agreed to by the whole 
nation." This Parliament was at- 
tended by all the bishops, abbots, 
earls, and barons, besides two 
knights from each shire and two 
burgesses, or citizens, from every 
important borough, or town. The 
clergy of each cathedral and parish also sent a delegate. 
This was called the "Model Parliament," and is important 
because it did serve as a model for later Parliaments. 

This Parliament voted taxes to carry on the war. The 
war was so expensive that two years later Edward called for 
more money, this time without the Parliament voting it. 

Confirmation of the Charters. Edward's arbitrary taxes 
alarmed the people. The barons were especially offended, and 
refused to go with Edward to fight in France. When the 
king told the Earl of Norfolk with an oath that "he would 
either go or hang," the earl replied with the same oath, "he 
would neither go nor hang." The clergy and nobles now 
joined hands and compelled the king to grant a " confirma- 
tion " of the previous charters, by which he also agreed never 

NlVER 7. 




Coronation Chair. 



108 THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS [1297 

to take any tax from the whole realm without the consent of 
Parliament. 

William Wallace. Among the Scots who quarreled with 
their English governors was Sir William Wallace. He re- 
treated to the mountains and gathered there a band of out- 
laws, which soon grew into an army. The English governors 
advanced to attack him at the end of a, bridge crossing the 
river Forth near Stirling. Wallace waited till the English 
were half across the bridge, and then fell upon them and 
defeated them. In a few days Wallace was master of Scotland 



g-r f»mM l nrAv 1 , ; iTi7 , mi , r. i MV [ T i' i M , - ' f ' " 




Sir William Wallace's Sword. 

and had begun to ravage the northern English counties, treat- 
ing the people with shocking cruelty. 

Falkirk. Edward, having concluded a peace with France, 
returned and speedily marched against Wallace, coming up 
with him at Falkirk. The Scottish army consisted of foot- 
men armed with long pikes or spears. They were drawn up 
in circles to oppose the cavalry and archers of the English. 
The English "long bow" and "cloth-yard shaft" were at 
this time famous throughout Europe. Every village green 
was the scene of archery contests on festival days. The 
English aim was true, and, with "bowstring drawn to the 
ear," the effect was deadly. The king ordered the archers 
to concentrate their fire upon one point in the Scottish ranks. 
A great gap soon appeared. Into this charged the armored 
knights with lance and sword. Many brave Scots refused to 
fly and grimly died where they stood. Others kept up the 
struggle for independence, and it was seven years before Ed- 
ward was able to join Scotland to England. Wallace was 
betrayed to the English and hanged as a traitor. 



1307] EDWARD II. 109 

Robert Bruce. The Scotch did not want the rule of 
Edward, however good it might be, and they determined to 
manage their affairs in their own way. A new leader was 
soon found in Eobert Bruce, grandson of John Ballot's chief 
rival in the contest for the Scottish throne. 

When King Edward heard of the new revolt, he vowed to 
take vengeance upon the traitors. But though many of the 
Scotch leaders were seized and executed, Bruce himself es- 
caped, hiding in the caves among the mountains. Here he 
.remained; and though hunted with bloodhounds, and often 
in danger of capture, he waited patiently until a fitting time 
should come for renewing the struggle. Before the year had 
passed, he reappeared in Carrick, his home, and the whole 
population rose at once to join him. In 1307 Edward again 
set out for Scotland. But he was now nearly seventy years 
old, and, worn out with toil and strife, he fell sick and died 
before reaching the border. 

Edward II., 1307-1327. 

The Reign of Edward II. showed how necessary it was 
to the peace and safety of England to have a strong king. 
Edward's wise and good mother had died when he was six 
years old, leaving him to be brought up by servants. He 
grew up in idleness, caring only for pleasure. He was a 
vigorous young man and liked to ride in the tournament and 
the chase, but as for the work of governing England, Edward 
would have none of it. As you have noticed in the history 
of England so far, a strong king has often been followed by a 
weak one. In one way this was an advantage, because the 
people had to keep sharp watch of the king and his govern- 
ment, and were gradually educated to take entire charge of it. 

Piers Gaveston, Edward's most intimate friend, was the 
son of a favorite old Gascon servant of his father. Piers was 
a clever, witty knight, but conceited, insolent, and greedy of 



110 



THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS 



[1307 



money. Edward I. had seen the bad influence of this man on 
his son and had banished him from the country. But Ed- 
ward II., as soon as his father died, recalled Gaveston and 
made him Earl of Cornwall. When Edward went to France 
to marry, Gaveston was left in charge of the kingdom; and 
on Edward's return he kept Gaveston in power. The barons, 
smarting under their humiliation, insisted on his banishment ; 
but Edward soon recalled him. 

Bannockburn ; Scotland Independent. The old king's dy- 
ing injunction to his son was to finish the Scotch war himself, 




Field of Bannockburn. 

but Edward II. appointed a new governor of Scotland, and 
went away to his court in the south. Eobert Bruce improved 
his opportunity. Within a few years he got back everything 
that Edward I. had taken from him, and laid siege to Stirling, 
the last stronghold of the English across the border. The 
garrison there agreed to surrender if not relieved by midsum- 
mer, 1314. This news at last roused the king, and he led an 
army against the Scots. 



1314] EDWARD 11. Ill 

At Bannockburn, Bruce made preparation for the recep- 
tion of the English by digging great pits in front of his army, 
in which he placed sharpened stakes, concealing them with a 
covering of turf. The English archers as usual began the 
battle, but they were poorly supported, and were driven off 
by the Scottish cavalry. Then an English charge over the pit- 
falls threw the whole English army into confusion. While the 
knights and the horses were floundering about, wounded by 
the sharp stakes, a body of Scotch servants and camp-followers 
appeared over the brow of a hill. The English, taking this 
for a reenforcement, fled in haste, pursued by the Scots, 
who overtook and slew hundreds in their flight. After this 
Bruce had everything his own way, and a few years later 
Edward gave up the attempt to reconquer Scotland. The 
Scots honor the battle of Bannockburn as the greatest event 
in their history, and Bruce as the savior of his country. 
Bobert Burns, the chief of Scottish poets, wrote " Bruce' s Ad- 
dress to his Army " : 

" Scots, wha hae wi* Wallace bled, 
Scots, wham Bruce has aften led, 
Welcome to your gory bed, 
Or to glorious victorie. 

" Now's the day, and now's the hour ; 
See the front of battle lower ; 
See approach proud Edward's power — 
Edward ! chains and slaverie ! 

" Lay the proud usurpers low ! 
Tyrants fall in every foe ! 
Liberty's in every blow ! 

Forward ! let us do, or die ! " 

The Lords Ordainers were a committee of twenty-one 
barons chosen by Parliament in 1310 to oversee the realm and 
to watch the actions of the king. Thomas, Earl of Lancas- 
ter, the king's cousin, was the chief man among them. It 
need scarcely be said that these nobles were disliked by Ed- 



112 THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS [1310 

ward, who was greatly amused by the rude names that Graves- 
ton bestowed upon them. The Earl of Warwick was "the 
Black Dog/' and Lancaster " the Old Hog. 7 ' Warwick vowed 
that Gaveston should " some day feel the Black Dog's teeth." 
When Edward refused to allow his favorite to remain out of 
England, the nobles carried him, a prisoner, to Warwick's 
castle, where he was put to death. 

For twenty years after the battle of Bannockburn, the his- 
tory of England consists of little more than the contests 
among these lords for power. The king, who had adopted 
two new favorites, named Despenser, father and son, got some 
of the barons on his side, attacked the Lancaster party, cap- 
tured the earl, and had him executed. 

Deposition and Death of the King. Shortly after this, 
the queen, Isabella, went to France. While there, she fell in 
love with one Eoger Mortimer, an exiled English lord, and 
formed a plot to depose her husband. Gathering a small 
army in France, she landed on the coast of Suffolk. The 
strongest of the barons of England joined her, while King 
Edward, almost deserted, fled with the Despensers and a few 
followers towards Wales. Being captured, the Despensers 
were executed, and Edward was compelled to resign the crown 
in favor of his son. He was imprisoned in Berkeley castle, 
near the river Severn, where he was cruelly murdered by the 
command of Mortimer and Isabella. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How can you account for the lawlessness at the beginning of 

Edward I.'s reign? 

2. Why was Edward asked to confirm the charters? 

3. What led to the conquest of Scotland? Was it a just war? 

How was Scotland lost? 

4. Compare the government of Edward II. with that of Edward I. 

5. What king did Edward II. resemble in character? 

6. With whom may Bruce be compared? Why? 

7. Compare the Parliaments of 1265 and 1295. 



1333] EDWARD III. 113 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Robert Bruce. Porter, Scottish Chiefs; Henty, In Freedom's 

Cause. 

2. Bannockburn. Porter, Scottish Chiefs; Lausdale, Scotland, 

Historic and Romantic, Vols. I., II. 

3. Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. Dickens, Child's History of 

England, Ch. XVII. 
5. The Heart of Bruce. Rolfe, Tales from English History. 



B. Beginning of the Hundred Years' War. 
Edward III., 1327-1377. 

A Regency was Appointed to govern the kingdom, as 
Edward III. was only fourteen years old at the death of his 
father ; but Mortimer and Queen Isabella had the real power. 

England had never fully acknowledged the independence of 
Scotland, and Bruce now invaded and plundered the northern 
counties in order to compel her to do so. Mortimer and Ed- 
ward led an army against the Scotch, but the latter had 
learned the folly of risking everything in a great battle, and 
were so rapid in their movements that the English could not 
come up with them. At the same time they were doing a 
vast amount of damage. Mortimer and the queen made 
peace by giving up all claim to the crown of Scotland. This 
defeat made Mortimer and the regency very unpopular. Ed- 
ward resolved to take control of the government. Though 
only eighteen years old, he was already married to Philippa 
of Hainault, a Flemish lady, and had a son. He gathered 
a company of Mortimer's enemies and captured him and Isa- 
bella at Nottingham, by entering the castle through a secret 
passage cut through the rock on which it was built. Mor- 
timer was hanged, and the queen was placed in a .private 
castle and allowed no further part in the government. 

War with Scotland. Edward refused to keep Mortimer's 
treaty with Eobert Bruce. He invaded Scotland, defeated 
the king, David Bruce, at Halidon Hill, and placed his vassal. 



114 



THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS 



[1333 




France in the Hundred Years' War. 

Edward Baliol, upon the throne. Bruce fled to France, but 
was soon restored by the Scots. 

The Hundred Years' War now began (1337). There 
were several causes for this long and bitter struggle. 



1340] 



EDWARD 111. 



115 



Eng- 
part 
con- 
open 




In the first place, it had become the settled policy of the 
French kings to get full control of all the provinces of France, 
and the English king's territories in the south were con- 
tinually being stirred up to rebellion. 

Second, the French king, Philip VI., made an alliance with 
the Scots against England. 

A third cause was the relation of Flanders to England. 
The Flemish cities of Ghent and Bruges were the great cen- 
ters of cloth manufac- 
turing in those days. 
There was little man- 
ufacturing in 
land. A large 
of the country 
sisted of great 
tracts, where herds of 
sheep and cattle were 
pastured. The wool 
was sent to Flanders and made into cloth, much of which 
was bought back by England. Edward's marriage with 
Philippa was intended to strengthen the friendly relations 
between England and Flanders. These provinces the French 
king was anxious to control. If he succeded, their trade 
relations with England would be broken off, and English 
farmers and merchants would suffer. 

Edward's Claim to the French Crown was another cause 
of this long war. His mother, Isabella, was the sister 
of the last king, while Philip VI. was only a cousin. The 
French claimed that, according to the Salic law, no woman 
could either rule in France or transmit the crown to her son. 

The Flemish people joined King Edward, for they hated 
the idea of French rule. But he soon found that they were 
ready to take an active part in 'the war only when well paid 
for it. Some of them had scruples in fighting against their 



Flemish Loom. 



116 



THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS 



[1340 



feudal lord, the King of France, and it was to satisfy them 
that Edward took that title himself, and placed the lilies of 
France in his coat of arms. 

Edward having returned to England to gather supplies for 
his army, Philip collected a large fleet to prevent the return 
of the English ships. Edward found the French fleet at 
Sluys, and defeated it so terribly that 30,000 Frenchmen 
were slain or drowned (1340) . The disaster was made known 
to Philip by the court jester, who said, " What cowards those 
English are; they had not the courage to jump overboard 
as our French did ! " 

Crecy. The next important campaign was in 1346. Ed- 
ward ravaged Normandy, and then began a inarch across 
France to join his allies in Flanders. Philip pursued, and 
the English army awaited attack at Crecy, where was fought 
one of the famous battles of English history. The French 
army consisted mainly of mounted knights, clad in armor, 

who fought with sword and lance. 
They had also 15,000 Genoese, who 
fought with the crossbow, an awkward 
weapon, which had to be wound up 
with wheel and ratchet to set the string 
every time it was discharged. The 
English archers, who formed the main 
body of Edward's army, had long ago 
discarded the Genoese weapon for the long bow and heavy 
arrows tipped with barbs of steel. Long practice enabled 
them to use this weapon with fatal effect at 300 yards, while 
at close range the knights' armor was no protection against 
its deadly force. 

The English army was drawn up in three divisions. Two 
divisions formed the line, of battle, and the third was kept 
in the rear as a reserve. Edward dismounted his knights 
and placed them among the archers with leveled spears. 







Battle of Crecy. 



1347] EDWARD III. 117 

Philip sent the Genoese crossbowmen forward to open the 
battle, but a heavy rain had just wet their bowstrings and 
made their weapons useless. The English, who had leather 
cases for their bows, drove them back with a flight of 
arrows. " Kill me those scoundrels ! " cried Philip, who took 
their forced retreat for cowardice. The French knights 
charged upon the poor Genoese and cut them down in order 
to clear the way for their attack upon the English. On 
they came in a furious assault, each trying to outride the 
others, in order to be in the van, the place of honor. But they 
went down by thousands before the archers and spearmen, 
while the Welsh with their long knives went over the field 
and dispatched those who were wounded or entangled by 
their armor or horses. King Edward's eldest son, the Black 
Prince, commanded the right wing. In the thick of the 
fight a messenger came to Edward for assistance. 

" Is the prince dead or wounded ? " asked the king. 
. " No, sire ; but he is hard pressed and needs your help." 

" Then," said the king, " return and tell those who sent 
you not to send again while my son lives. Command them to 
let the boy win his spurs ! " 

When the day of Crecy was over, the English army of 
about 30,000 had completely defeated the French army of 
100,000, of whom nearly a third were left dead on the field. 

Calais. The Scotch, according to their agreement with 
Philip, now invaded England. They were defeated at Nev- 
ille's Cross, and their king, David, was carried off to London 
a prisoner. Meanwhile, Edward had laid siege to Calais. 
This place had been a harbor for pirates and could expect no 
mercy. The town was stubbornly defended, and yielded only 
when compelled by famine. Edward ordered six of the 
leading citizens to come to him with ropes about their necks, 
intending to hang them. But Queen Philippa begged so 
earnestly for their lives that the king released them. He now 



118 



THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS 



[1347 




drove the Frenchmen out of Calais and made it an English 
colony. It became an important port for trade between Eng- 
land and the continent and remained in the hands of the 
English for more than two hundred years. 

The Black Death, in 1348, brought about a long truce. 
This terrible pestilence swept over Europe, killing more than 
half of the population. England, on the victorious return 

of the king, had 
given itself up to 
festivities and re- 
joicing. Edward 
had established the 
" Order of the Gar- 
ter," imitating 
King Arthur's 
Knights of the 
Bound Table. Gor- 
geous tournaments 
were held, attended 
by the victorious 
chivalry of Eng- 
land and gay ladies 
in luxurious attire. 
In the midst of this 
gayety, the plague 
appeared. Both 
man and beast were 
attacked. In some 
districts the earth 
was strewn with 
the dead bodies of 

Admission into the Order of the Garter. cattl ^ l 10rses ^ s l ieep ^ 

and human beings. Toward the end of 1349, the plague 
subsided, but it appeared twice again within twenty years; 



1349] EDWARD III. .119 

and it was two centuries before the population increased 
again to what it had been. 

Effects of the Plague on Labor. Under the Saxon kings 
there had been few slaves and many freemen ; but the Norman 
conquerors had forced both classes alike into a state of bond- 
age, which, while higher than that of the Saxon thrall, was 
far below that of the Saxon churl. This form of servitude 
was later called "villenage," and the bondmen, "villeins." 
Thus actual slavery died out soon after the conquest, and 
the word slave, in the sense of a person who could be bought 
and sold at the pleasure of the master, ceased to be used. 
The Saxon " vill " became the Norman " manor." The 
lord of the manor, after reserving one third of the land 
for his own use, divided the rest among his villeins, who lived, 
each in his own cottage, on his own plot of ground. The 
villein was obliged to work for his lord several days each 
week, and to furnish supplies of grain, meat, and poultry for 
his lord's use. He could not acquire any property of his 
own, and, if the land changed hands in any way, the villeins 
went with it. They were not allowed to leave the manor, and 
their children remained in the same condition as them- 
selves. But after the time of Henry III., the manorial system 
and villenage underwent a change. The lord found it more 
profitable to pay his villeins wages and charge them a rent 
for the land. Many villeins escaped to the towns, where, if 
they remained unclaimed for a year and a day, they became 
free. 

When the black death had swept away about half the labor- 
ing population, the remaining half naturally demanded more 
money for their work. The landlords would not pay any 
more. As the villeins, or laboring class, as we must now call 
them, had no power in Parliament, the landholders passed a 
law called the " Statute of Laborers." This law forbade any 
laborer to ask for more wages than he had received before 



120 



THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS. 



[1349 



the plague. When the peasants refused to work, the lords 
attempted to restore the old condition of villenage, which 
had not entirely died out. Where this was attempted the 
villeins ran away, and looked for work in other places where 
they could receive wages like free men. Many of them be- 
came mechanics and tradesmen in the neighboring towns. 

The War with France was Renewed (1355). Edward 
offered to make peace if King John, who had succeeded Philip, 
would give him the full sovereignty of Aquitaine; but John 
refused to do this. In 1355, the Black Prince led a plunder- 
ing expedition through southern France. The next year he 
started out again from Bordeaux, swept through central 
France, and started to return with 8,000 men guarding his 
load of plunder. When near Poitiers, south of the Loire, 

he was overtaken by King John with 
50,000 Frenchmen. With the exception 
that John dismounted the greater part 
of his knights, the tactics of Crecy were 
repeated, with results more disastrous to 
the French. The English were drawn 
up on both sides of a long lane, behind 
hedges which protected them. As the 
battle of Poitiers. French came charging down the lane, 
both men and horses were shot down until the remainder 
stopped and fled in terror. The English charged upon the 
fugitives, and attacked the French reserve force both in front 
and in flank. King John was taken prisoner, and the battle 
was won. 

France was mercilessly plundered by the French nobles in 
order to ransom their king and relatives, whom the Black 
Prince had carried off to England. When Edward invaded 
the land again he found no men to defend it, nor food to 
feed his troops. Once his army was overtaken on the march 
by a terrific thunderstorm. The king, who was conscience- 




1375] EDWARD 111. 121 

stricken at the ruin lie had wrought, thought he heard, the 
voice of God telling him to desist. 

In 1360 the Peace of Bretigny was made, by which Ed- 
ward gave up his claim to the French crown, and received full 
sovereignty over Gascony, Guienne, Aquitaine, and Calais. 
King John was to pay a huge sum for his ransom. Three 
years before this Edward had acknowledged the independence 
of Scotland, and released King David (p. 117) on the promise 
to pay a ransom of £60,000. 

Edward's Last War with France was caused by the 
refusal of Charles V., who had succeeded his chivalrous father, 
John, to stand by the treaty of Bretigny. He summoned the 
Black Prince, who was now Duke of Aquitaine, to Paris to 
answer for his misconduct in overtaxing his subjects. " Cer- 
tainly I will go," said the prince, "with helmet on head and 
60,000 men behind me." But in the war which followed, 
Charles was wiser than his father. He would fight no battles, 
but hung upon the rear of the enemy, cut off stragglers, and 
made waste the country through which the army of the prince 
had to pass. The baffled prince, who had treated the captive 
King John with gentle courtesy, ordered the massacre of 
3,000 men, women, and children who had surrendered at Li- 
moges. Yet three knights, who had fought to the last, he 
spared. The prince's brother, John of Gaunt, led another 
army into France from Calais; but winter came on, food 
failed, and cold and famine did the work that the French king 
declined to attempt. A rabble of hungry fugitives was all 
that remained of the fine army when Bordeaux was reached. 
In the truce made in 1375, the English were forced to give 
up all their French provinces except a few cities along the 
coast. 

A Dispute about the Clergy grew up in the latter part 
of Edward's reign. A party arose which favored taking away 
from the clergy all share in political affairs, and depriving 



122 THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS. [1362 

them of a part of their property. This movement, which 
began among the people, was aided by the barons, especially 
by John of Gaunt, who had become Duke of Lancaster on 
marrying the wealthy heiress of that duchy. 

The poem called " The Vision of Piers the Plowman," 
written by William Langland (1362), complains of the con- 
dition of the church; that bishops are busy with politics; 
that monks are wicked; that the friars are greedy; and that 
all people are open to bribery. 

John Wyclif also, at this time, attacked the power of the 
clergy and the evil customs that had grown up in the church. 
He made the first translation of the Bible into English, and 
was the forerunner of the Eeformation, that great struggle 
which resulted in the separation of Protestants from the 
Catholic Church. Wyclif was a famous scholar of Oxford, 
and had argued against the Pope's claim to the annual tribute 
of 1,000 marks that had been levied on King John (p. 93). 
He also set forth a theory that all men held their possessions 
direct from God, on condition of leading a righteous life ; and 
that when they became wicked God would take away their 
estates. The Duke of Lancaster thought Wyclif s idea a 
good one and as, in his opinion, some of the clergy were 
wicked, he persuaded the Parliament to put certain of the 
wealthier clergy out of office and rob them of their estates. 
These he intended to keep for himself and his fellow-barons. 
But the Black Prince headed a party which soon restored 
the clergy to power and drove Lancaster out of the king's 
council for a time. 

Division of Parliament into Lords and Commons. It 
had come about that the knights and burgesses had separated 
themselves from the lords and bishops and were called the 
Commons. They tried to keep for themselves the right to 
vote taxes, while the lords had more to do with managing the 
affairs of government. In the dispute over the clergy, the 



1377] EDWARD III. 123 

Commons sided with the Black Prince, because they were 
disgusted with the corrupt rule of the barons. 

Deaths of King Edward and the Black Prince. The 
prince had long been in ill health, brought on by his wars in 
France. His defense of the clergy (1376) was his last public 
act, and he died the same year. His son Eichard was now 
considered heir to the throne. 

For several years the king had been suffering from a disease 
which weakened his mind, and he was unable to take part in 
war or government. A woman named Alice Perrers had ob- 
tained great influence over him, and had persuaded him to 
give his consent to all the evil plans of Lancaster and his 
followers. She was banished from court by the same Par- 
liament that restored the clergy to power ; but after the death 
of the prince, both she and Lancaster returned. The next 
year the poor old king died also, deserted by every one. 

















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Chaucer's Canterbury Pilgrims. 

The " Father of English Poetry." During the reign of 
Edward III. there grew up at his court a young squire, named 
Geoffrey Chaucer, who became the first great poet to write in 
the English tongue. Chaucer was a soldier, courtier, diplo- 
mat, and man of business. He was as well acquainted with 
the life of the people as he was with that of the court. His 
great poem is a collection of stories called " The Canterbury 
Tales." He tells us that he once made a pilgrimage to the 
shrine of St. Thomas at Canterbury. On the way he fell in 

NlVER — 8. 



124 THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS [1327 

with a large company of pilgrims, and they all set out together 
from the Tabard Inn in Southwark (southern London). 
To while away the time, it was agreed that each one should 
tell two tales on the way out and two on the return. In all 
twenty-four tales were told. Among the story-tellers were a 
knight, a squire, a yeoman, a monk, a nun, a merchant, a 
doctor, and others, representing every class of society and em- 
ployment in the land. 

The writings of Chaucer and Wyclif show us that the peo- 
ple of England had come to use one language, the English. 
A great many French words were mixed with it, but the main 
part is made up of the same language that Alfred used. The 
schools, which had formerly given instruction only in Latin 
and French, had now begun to teach in English. And in 
1362 Parliament made a law that all cases in the law courts 
must "hereafter be pleaded, defended, and debated in the 
English tongue." 

Cloth Manufacture in Edward III.'s Time. In this 
reign the manufacture of good cloth was begun in England. 
The people had long made coarse cloth, but the finer woolens 
could be obtained only in the Flemish provinces. Edward, 
through the influence of his wife Philippa, brought over a 
company of Flemish spinners and weavers, who taught the 
English how to spin fine thread and make it into cloth. All 
work was done by hand. Every workman had his own wheel 
and loom, and belonged to the guild of his craft, or trade. 
Young apprentices had to serve under master workmen until 
they became skilled in the trade. 

The Merchant Guild; Staples; the Steelyard. In the 
Middle Ages, when robber knights abounded on land and pi- 
rates at sea, many dangers beset traveling merchants. They 
naturally joined in leagues and guilds for protection. The 
peace-guilds of the towns and villages, formed for the com- 
mon protection of their members, the social and religious 



1377] 



EDWARD 111. 



125 



guilds, and the trade guilds served as the models for the 
merchant guilds. The most noted merchant guild was formed 
in Germany in 1241 and was known as the Hansa, or the 
Hanseatic League. This league came to control all the trade 
of northern Europe, and included eighty-five leading cities, 
among them Liibeck, Cologne, Bruges, and London (map, p. 
164). The roads leading from city to city were carefully 
guarded, so that the merchant caravans could travel safely. 
The league kept in its employ a large army and a strong navy. 
In each city it kept a fortress and storehouse, where the 
merchant guild of the city could meet and where goods 
could be safely stored or exchanged. In London this build- 
ing stood on the bank 
of the Thames and 
was known as the 
Steelyard, from a 
Dutch word, stael- 
liof, which meant the 
place where cloth was 
marked as being 
properly dyed and of 
standard quality. Goods were disposed of at great fairs, which 
were held in important towns. After a time these fairs were 
kept up in a few towns during the whole year, and such places 
became known as " staples." The chief productions of Eng- 
land, as wool, sheepskins, and leather, were allowed to be 
sold only in the staple towns, and hence the goods themselves 
were called " staples." Calais, from its convenient situation, 
became the chief English staple. Only merchants having a 
royal license were allowed to trade at the fairs and staples. 
We shall find the peasants, in the reign of Eichard II., de- 
manding the privilege to buy and sell freely at the fairs, in- 
stead of being compelled to pay a good round sum for the 
privilege. 




The Steelyard. 



1^6 THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS [1327 

Eastern Trade Routes. In the south of Europe trade 
was chiefly controlled by the great Italian cities Venice and 
Genoa. Their ships sailed to every part of the Mediterranean. 
They commanded the trade routes to the East (p. 164). The 
crusades had made the people of Europe acquainted with the 
luxuries of the East. Erom the countries of Asia, costly 
fabrics, metal and glass ware, and gems and pearls found 
their way to European courts through the gates of Venice and 
Genoa. The merchants of these towns traded with the mer- 
chants of the Hansa, and so goods that had been made in far 
away China 'and India were offered for sale in York and 
London. 

Self-Government in the Towns. The guilds, which were 
the wealthy corporations of the Middle Ages, taking advan- 
tage of the king's need of money, bought from him charters, 
privileges, and power to raise their own taxes and to make 
their own laws. London in this way purchased its liberty 
of the Conqueror. Other towns followed until all the larger 
cities in England became self-governing communities. This 
practice in the art of governing was of great advantage to the 
burgesses who became members of Parliament. The growth 
and organization of the Commons was largely due to the expe- 
rience of the burgesses in the management of the affairs of 
their guilds and boroughs. 

Richard II., 1377-1399. 

The Uprising of the Peasants. When Eichard II., at 
the age of ten, came to the throne, a variety of troubles were 
threatening the kingdom. The French attacked the coast. 
The Scots, as usual, acting with France, plundered the bor- 
ders. The clergy and the barons stopped quarreling long 
enough to provide against the common danger, and under the 
lead of the Duke of Lancaster made an unsuccessful attempt 
to carry the war into France. 



1381] RICHARD II. 127 

But more serious trouble was brewing within the country. 
The Statute of Laborers, passed in the last reign, and the at- 
tempts of the landlords to keep the peasants in a state of 
villenage, had provoked a spirit of discontent everywhere. 
This feeling was especially strong among the Lollards, the 
followers of Wyclif. Their leaders went abroad preaching 
against the vices and negligence of the clergy, and encoura- 
ging the peasants in their revolt against the landlords. A 
priest named John Ball also preached in the same way, taking 
for his text the following lines : 

" When Adam delved and Eve span, 
Who was then the gentleman? " 

He would say to the peasants : " My friends, things will 
never go well in England till there shall no longer be lord 
and vassal, when we shall be our own masters as much as 
they. What right have they to keep us in bondage? And 
how ill they use us ! Are we not all descended from Adam 
and Eve? And they are clothed in velvets and ermine, while 
we must wear the poorest cloth. They have wines and spices 
and fine bread and handsome houses, while we have only rye 
and water for food and drink, and must brave the wind and 
rain in the field. Let us go to the king, who is young, and 
tell him of our servitude, and that we must have it otherwise 
or we will find a remedy for ourselves/-' 

To meet the war expenses, the Parliament had levied a 
poll tax, according to each man's rank. Every peasant was 
to pay three groats for each grown-up member of his family. 
One of the tax collectors behaved in an offensive manner 
in the home of a certain Wat Tyler in Kent, who struck him 
dead with a hammer. Tyler's neighbors rose to protect him. 
Jack Straw roused the peasants in the neighboring county of 
Essex. In a short time the movement spread from one end 
of England to the other. 



128 THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS [1381 

The lords were the first to feel the vengeance of the rebels. 
Their manor honses were torn down, their parks stripped of 
game, and their property carried away. 

An immense mob, said to number 100,000, streamed into 
London. The king and a few attendants rode out to meet 
them, and offered to grant all that they asked. They de- 
manded four things: that villenage, or work without pay, 
be abolished, so that they should be forever free men; that 
the rent of land be fourpence an acre; that they be free to 
buy and sell in all the fairs and markets; and that there 
should be a general pardon for past offenses. Charters agree- 
ing to all their demands were made out and given to the peas- 
ants of each parish, most of whom then returned to their 
homes. 

About 30,000, however, remained under the lead of Tyler. 
As the king and his attendants were riding through the 
streets, Tyler came up and spoke to him, laying his hand on 
the king's bridle. Upon this he was immediately cut down 
by the Mayor of London and one of Eichard's attendants. 
The followers of Tyler bent their bows and would have slain 
the king and his followers, but Eichard with rare bravery 
and presence of mind rode among them and cried, " I will 
be your leader. I am your king." And the mob followed 
after him, through the streets, till a force of soldiers fell upon 
them and drove them from the city. 

The poor peasants were now mercilessly punished. They 
were slaughtered by thousands throughout the country and 
thrust back into bondage worse than before. But in spite 
of their defeat they had accomplished their main object. 
They had shown their power. The landlord found that slave 
labor was neither profitable nor safe, and villenage from this 
time gradually died out. 

Richard's Uncles, the Duke of Lancaster and the Duke of 
Gloucester, made him a vast amount of trouble. The rest 



1389] RICHARD II. 129 

of his reign was largely taken up with his contests with them 
for control of affairs. The Duke of Lancaster at first had 
his own way, but was unsuccessful and extravagant. He was 
suspected of having designs upon the throne, and was hated 
by the common people. He soon sailed away to Spain to 
claim the throne of Castile in right of his wife, and left 
Richard to himself. 

Richard invaded Scotland with some success, and costly 
preparation was made to resist a French invasion that did not 
come. A strong party gathered under the Duke of Glouces- 
ter; but he was as unsuccessful, and as much disliked, as 
Lancaster had been. It was during his rule that the battle 
of Otterburn was fought between the Percys of Northum- 
berland and Earl Douglas, described in the famous " Ballad 
of Chevy Chase." In the ballad Earl Douglas thus challenges 
Percy to a personal combat : 

" But trust me, Percy, pity 't were 
And great offense to kill 
Any of these our guiltlesse men, 
For they have done no ill. 

" Let thou and I the battell trye 

And set our men aside." 
" Accurst bee he," Erie Percy sayd, 
" By whome this is denyed." 

They fought untill they both did sweat, 

With swords of tempered Steele, 
Untill the blood, like drops of rain, 

They trickling down did feel. 

Richard Assumes Control. One day in the council Rich- 
ard turned to his uncle and quietly asked his own age. 

" Your Majesty," said Gloucester, " is in your twenty- 
second year." 

" Then/' said Richard, " I am surely old enough to manage 
my own affairs, as other men attain their majority at twenty- 



130 THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS [1389 

one. I thank yon, my lords, for yonr past services, bnt I 
want them no longer." 

For seven years after this, Eichard ruled moderately and 
well. He tried to be friendly with those who had been his 
enemies. He made a long truce with France and married the 
daughter of the French king. 

His Despotism. There was dissatisfaction with the king's 
alliance with France. Fearing that his uncle Gloucester and 
his friends would take advantage of it to deprive him of 
power again, Richard suddenly caused three of them to be 
seized. Gloucester was imprisoned at Calais and secretly 
murdered. The king now began to gather soldiers about him, 
to rob the people of their money, and to illtreat them in other 
ways, just as some of the barons were in the habit of doing. 
The people, seeing that he was no longer their protector 
and champion, were ready to give their allegiance to a new 
leader. 

Henry Bolingbroke was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke 
of Lancaster. He had been unjustly banished for ten years, 
and when his father died, the estates which should have 
gone to him were seized by Eichard. People began to think 
that under such a king no man's property was safe. Henry 
suddenly landed in Yorkshire with a small force. He said 
he had come to claim his inheritance, and to set right the 
wrongs which prevailed in England. Armed men flocked to 
his banner. Eichard, who was in Ireland fighting against 
some chiefs who had invaded the English Pale, was on his 
return betrayed into Henry's hands by the Earl of Northum- 
berland. The new Duke of Lancaster came into his pres- 
ence. 

" Fair cousin of Lancaster," said Eichard, " you are right 
welcome." 

" My Lord," replied Henry, " I am come before my time. 
But I will show you the reason. Your people complain that 



1399] 



RICHARD II. 



131 



for twenty-two years you have ruled them rigorously, and 
now, if it please God, I shall help you to govern better." 

Eichard was taken to the famous Tower of London and 
was compelled to resign the throne. Henry claimed the 




The Present Tower of London. 

throne, although the rightful heir was Edmund Mortimer, 
Earl of March, who was descended from Lionel, the third son 
of Edward III., while John of Gaunt was the fourth. But 
the Parliament elected Henry, exercising its ancient right 
in choosing a king. 



QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. What reasons, if any, justified Edward III. in beginning the Hun- 

dred Years' War? 

2. Give reasons for the Scotch alliance with France. 

3. How could the French have avoided the disaster at Crecy? 

4. What led to villenage in England, and what caused it to die 

out? 

5. Who was Wyclif? Chaucer? Langland? 

6. Describe the routes by which the products of the East were 

brought to England. 



132 THE LATER PLANTAGENET KINGS [1399 

7. How was domestic commerce carried on in Edward III.'s time? 

How did this method affect the people? The merchants? The 
king? 

8. What advantages came from the merchant and trade guilds? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Black Death. Kendall, Source Booh, pp. 102-106; Green, 

Short History, p. 248. 

2. The Black Prince. Scott, Tales of a Grandfather ; Stoddard, 

With the Black Prince. 

3. The Merchant Guilds. Green, Short History, pp. 193-199 ; 

Gardiner, Student's History, p. 169. 

4. The Peasants' Revolt. Yonge, Cameos from English History, 

Vol. IV. ; Lanier, The Boy's Froissart, pp. 278-294. 

5. Battles of Crecy and Poitiers. Kendall, Source Booh, pp. 93- 

97; Lanier, The Boy's Froissart, pp. 226-253. 



VI. THE HOUSES OE LANCASTER AND YORK. 1 

A. Success at Home and Abroad. 
Henry IV. 1399-1413. 

" Uneasy Lies the Head that Wears a Crown" are words 
put into the mouth of Henry IV. by Shakespeare, and they 
could not be more appropriately said of any other king. 
During the first nine years of his reign, his energies were 
directed toward keeping the crown which he had so easily 
obtained. Although he was not the heir to the throne, the 
people accepted him, because they loved peace and thought 
that he would be a strong ruler, and prevent such insurrection 
and bloodshed as had disgraced the reign of Richard. 

The Burning of Heretics. In order to secure the sup- 
port of the clergy, Henry gave them his assistance in sup- 
pressing heresy. By a heretic was meant any one who refused 
to believe the teaching of the established church. The clergy 
said they could not stop heresy unless they had full power to 
punish heretics. Wyclif had been the first to doubt the teach- 
ing of the church, and his followers were constantly increas- 
ing. So a law was passed, providing that a heretic might be 

TOOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

Edmund, younger son of Henry III. (p. 75) 

> Henry, Earl of Lancaster 

Henry, Duke of Lancaster 

John of Gaunt (p. 102) m. Blanche. 
Duke of Lancaster | 

Henry IV. (1399-1413) 

Henry V. (1413-1422) 

Henry VI. (1422-1461) 

133 



134 HOUSE OF LANCASTER [1401 

burned if he persisted in his unbelief . This was the first law 
passed in England to suppress religious freedom, though there 
were many such laws in other countries. William Sawtre was 
the first victim. He was burned to death because he refused 
to believe the miracle of the Eucharist, or Lord's Supper. 

The First Attempt to Dethrone Henry was made within 
two months of his accession, by some nobles who favored 
Eichard and wished to restore him. Their plot was discov- 
ered and they fled, but were seized and put to death. Eichard 
died soon after this, and his body was shown to the people 
that all might know he was really dead. But the report went 
out that the dead body shown was not that of Eichard, and 
rumors of his appearance in different places were a source of 
trouble to King Henry for several years. 

Owen Glendower was a Welshman whose estate had been 
seized by an English noble. As the king failed to restore 
the land, Owen declared himself Prince of Wales and began 
war. He defeated several forces sent against him and cap- 
tured Lord Grey, who had taken his estate, and many other 
prisoners. The king found it impossible to subdue Owen, 
and the terrible storms that arose when the English invaded 
his mountain fastnesses gave rise to the belief that the Welsh 
leader was a wizard and could bring storms at will to confuse 
his enemies. 

The Battle of Shrewsbury (1403). The Earl of Nor- 
thumberland bore the family name of Percy. His house had 
strongly supported Henry's claim to the throne. As it was 
the duty of the Percys to guard England against Scotch in- 
vasion, they kept a vast number of " retainers/' or hired sol- 
diers, such as were maintained by some barons after the de- 
cline of the feudal system. They met a Scotch force return- 
ing from a raid on the English border and totally defeated it 
at Homildon Hill. A number of Scotch nobles fell into 
their hands, for whom they expected large ransoms. But 



1407] HENRY IV. 135 

Henry demanded the ransoms for himself. Northumberland's 
son, Harry Percy, called " Hotspur " from his vigor and dar- 
ing in battle, had also another grievance because Henry did 
not ransom Hotspur's brother-in-law, the uncle of the Earl 
of March who was the true heir to the throne, when he ran- 
somed other captives from the hands of Owen Glendower. 
Disgusted and raging at the king's ingratitude, the Percys 
joined the Scotch, and their army, under Hotspur, marched 
south to join Glendower. But it was met by Henry's army 
at Shrewsbury, where Hotspur was defeated and killed. 
There were a few more risings against Henry in England, but 
all were put down. 

Peace with France and Scotland. Henry had vanquished 
his enemies at home. Two accidents gave him the upper 
hand abroad. The King of France was Charles VI., a weak 
ruler. His relatives the Duke of Orleans and the Duke of 
Burgundy exercised the real power. The Duke of Burgundy 
held Flanders and was friendly to England for reasons of 
trade, but Orleans was Henry's bitter enemy. In the year 
1407 Orleans was murdered in the streets of Paris, and 
the French opposition to England was soon afterwards 
withdrawn. 

Shortly before this, the King of Scotland sent his son, 
Prince James, away to France to learn French and to finish 
his education. But an English ship captured the vessel in 
which he sailed, and brought him a prisoner to King Henry. 
The king rejoiced at his good fortune, for it secured him 
against any further inroads on the part of the Scotch, and 
he said he could "teach the prince French as well as the 
French king." For seventeen years the prince was detained. 
After this he was released and became King James I. of Scot- 
land. Henry provided for his education, and the prince in 
his captivity became the most famous poet of the time. His 
chief work, a poetical account of the incidents of his life, 



136 HOUSE OF LANCASTER [1407 

is called " The King's Quhair." One morning, looking from 
his prison window, he saw, " walkyng under the Toure," 

" The fairest or the freschest younge floure 
That ever I sawe, methought, before that houre." 

This fair " young flower " was Lady Jane Beaufort, whom the 
prince afterwards married. 

The House of Commons. Henry's need of strong sup- 
port from the people led to a great increase in the power 
of their representatives in the House of Commons. The Com- 
mons secured the sole right to levy taxes, and before granting 
money to the king insisted on having evil practices remedied. 
They reserved for themselves the right of deciding disputed 
elections. They also secured for their members freedom of 
speech and' freedom from arrest while in discharge of their 
duties. They had an accurate journal of their proceedings 
kept, so that there could no longer be any dispute concerning 
what they had done. Henry IY. was so careful to rule ac- 
cording to law that he has been called the first constitutional 
monarch in the history of Europe. 

Prince " Hal." The victory over the Percys at Shrews- 
bury was due largely to the bravery of the Prince of Wales. 
Shakespeare, in his play " King Henry IV.," has described the 
prince as a wild and dissolute young man. But if so, Prince 
Henry laid aside his folly promptly when serious work was 
to be done. At the age of eighteen he became a member of 
his father's council, and during the later years of the reign 
the prince became the real head of the government. The king, 
who had suffered long from a troublesome disease, died in 
1413 in the room of Westminster Abbey called the Jerusalem 
Chamber. 

" It hath been prophesied to me many years, 
I should not die but in Jerusalem ; 
Which vainly I supposed the Holy Land. — 
But bear me to that chamber ; there I'll lie ; 
In that Jerusalem shall Harry die." 



1415] 



HENRY V. 



137 



Henry V., 1413-1422. 
Suppression of the Lollards. Henry Y. was sternly re- 
ligions and followed his father's policy in suppressing heresy. 
The leader of the Lollards was now a knight named Old- 
castle. He was tried and condemned to the stake. But be- 
fore the sentence could be carried out, he escaped. His fol- 
lowers formed a plot to kill the king and his brothers. Their 
plans were found out, and thirty-nine of them were captured 
and put to death. A few years later Oldcastle also was taken 
and burned. After this the Lollards were driven out of the 
towns ; their books and writings were burned, and we hear no 
more of them in England. 

The War with France was now Resumed. Henry, re- 
viving the claim of Edward III., resolved to seize the throne 
of France. He thought that if he occupied the attention of 
the nobles with a foreign war, they would be less disposed to 
rebel against him. Erance was at this time weakened by 
the deadly strife of the Burgundy and Armagnac factions. 

In 1415 he landed with a large 
army at Harneur, near the mouth 
of the Seine, and took that town 
after a terrible siege. Though he 
had lost half his army by famine 
and sickness, he now started to 
march overland to the English 
town of Calais. An army of 40,- 
000 Erench blocked his way at 
Agincourt. The battle was fought on a freshly plowed field, 
where the Erench knights, clad in heavy armor, sank knee- 
deep in the mud and stuck fast when they attempted to 
charge the English. The battles of Crecy and Poitiers had 
taught the Erench nothing, and they were merely targets for 
the English archers. Ten thousand French were killed and 
several thousand more made prisoners by the little English 



To Calais 




Agincourt^ 

.v. r 

\Wpbfis 



<m&s>. 






' Vs&£\fl| G 



soncelles 



Battle of Agincouet. 



138 



HOUSE OF LANCASTER 



[1415 




The Morning of the Battle of Agincourt. 

army of 6,000 men. Before the battle, Shakespeare puts into 
the month of the Earl of Westmoreland words addressed to 
the king: 

" O, that we now had here 
But one ten thousand of those men in England 
That do no work to-day ! " 

The king replies : 



" No, my fair cousin : 
If we are marked to die, we are enough 
To do our country loss ; and if to live, 
The fewer men, the greater share of honor. 
God's will ! I pray thee, wish not one man more." 

Henry now retired to England to recruit his army. Two 
years later he came back to France and took town after 
town. The leading men in every place were hanged as 
traitors. But Bouen held out bravely against Henry's siege. 



1422] HENRY V. 139 

Thousands of the peasants had gathered in the town for 
protection. The magistrates drove them out of the gates in 
order that food might be saved for the soldiers. Henry re- 
fused to allow them to pass his lines and held them penned 
up outside the walls of Kouen, where old men, helpless women 
and children starved and died. After six months the city 
itself was starved into surrender. 

Treaty of Troyes and Death of Henry. The English 
successes and a threatened attack on Paris drove the French 
to attempt to reconcile the warring parties of Burgundy and 
Armagnac. But when the Duke of Burgundy was murdered 
the Burgundian party joined Henry, and they took possession 
of Paris. A treaty of peace was made at Troyes in 1420. 
Henry married Catherine, the daughter of the French king, 
Charles VI. ; became Regent of France ; and, on the death of 
the king, was to succeed to the throne. While making prep- 
arations for subduing the south of France, which held out 
for the son of Charles VI., Henry suddenly died near Paris 
in 1422. 

Henry V. had become the hero of the English nation. The 
glory he had won in the wars at home was increased a hundred 
fold by his success in France. His early death brought deeper 
sorrow to the nation than it had ever before felt for the loss 
of a king. The right of the House of Lancaster to the throne 
was firmly established. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How did Richard II. lose his throne? Why was Henry IV. put 

in his place? 

2. Why was it good policy for Henry IV. to favor the church? 

Why was the law concerning heresy passed? 

3. Why did the House of Commons get more power during this reign? 

Did the king favor this? Why? 

4. Did the French war accomplish the purpose for which it was 

begun ? 
Niver — 9. 



140 HOUSE OF LANCASTER [1422 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Lollards. Davis, The Lollard; Green, Short History, pp. 

242-273. 

2. Prince Hal. Kingsford, Henry V., pp. 1-93 ; Yonge, Cameos from 

English History, Vol. II., pp. 247-56. 

3. Battle of Agincourt, Shakespeare, King Henry V.; Yonge, 

Cameos from English History, II., pp. 274-284. 

4. Prince James of Scotland. Yonge, The Caged Lion; Mackin- 

tosh, History of Scotland. 



B. The Wars of the Eoses. 

Henry VI., 1422-1461. 

The English in France. The infant son of Henry V. 
was crowned in England and, after the death of Charles VI., 
in France also. The war against Charles VII., the son of 
Charles VI., went on under the command of a brave and able 
man, the Duke of Bedford, brother of Henry V. The French 
were discouraged and made little resistance as the English 
army marched south from Paris, capturing town after town. 
Finally the English came to the great city of Orleans on the 
Loire. If this city should fall, the cause of France would be 
lost, and Charles VII. was already preparing to flee to Scot- 
land with his court. 

Joan of Arc. But help came from an unexpected source. 
The French had given up all hope of being able to drive 
out the English ; while the English, confident that they would 
soon have everything their own way, were not so careful as 
they had been in times of danger. If the French soldiers 
could only be inspired with confidence in themselves they 
might yet win. The inspiration came to them through a 
little peasant girl of Lorraine. When she heard the horrible 
tales of the murder and devastation wrought by the Eng- 
lish, and that no one was able to lead the French against them, 
it seemed to Joan of Arc (or Jeanne d'Arc) that she was 
chosen by God to be their leader. As she thought about it 



1429] 



HENRY VI. 



141 



more and more, she fancied angels came to her, saying, " Go, 
Joan, and save the king ! Lead him to Eeims to be crowned 
and anointed ! " There was an old prophecy of which Joan 
had heard — that a woman should destroy the kingdom, and 
that a maiden of Lorraine should save it. And she believed 
that she was the maiden. 

At last her own village of Domremi was destroyed by a 
troop of Burgunclians. Joan made her way to the French 
kingfs court. Soon 
the news spread 
among the French 
soldiers that a vir- 
gin had come from 
heaven to save 
France. Clad in 
armor and mounted 
on a white horse, 
she was placed at 
the head of an army 
to relieve Orleans. 
With shouts of tri- 
umph, the French 
assaulted the tow- 
ers built by the 
English besiegers 
before the city, and 
carried them. The 
bravest English 
commanders, Suf- 
folk and Talbot, gave up in despair, and the next day re- 
treated. The maid urged a hot pursuit and inflicted another 
severe defeat on the enemy. She led the king to Eeims, the 
old coronation city of France, and there in the great cathedral, 
July 17, 1429, she saw with joy the crown placed upon his 




Joan's Entry into Orleans. 



142 HOUSE OF LANCASTER - [1429 

head. She had now done all that the angels had told her to 
do, and wished to return to her home. But Charles insisted 
on her remaining with the army, thinking they conld not con- 
quer without her. 

Capture and Death of Joan. In the following spring, 
the Burgundians took Joan prisoner and sold her to the 
English. If the French thought her to be an angel from 
heaven, to the English she was a witch and in league with 
the devil. To the everlasting shame of the English com- 
mander, she was tried and condemned to be burned. She died 
declaring to the last that the voices which urged her to go 
against the English came from God, and the last word she 
uttered before the smoke and name stopped her voice forever 
was "Jesus." An English soldier standing by cried out in 
terror, " We are lost ! We have burned a saint ! " 

The Final Defeat of the English was at hand, for the 
French spirit of patriotism had been aroused. Public busi- 
ness compelled Bedford to return to England, and during 
his absence the French gained rapidly. After his death 
the Burgundians and French united against the English, and 
Paris was soon won back. A truce was made, and the young 
English king, Henry VI., married Margaret, a princess of 
Anjou. But before long the French reconquered Normandy 
and some coast towns, and England, out of all the possessions 
that Edward III. had won in France, was allowed to retain 
only the little town of Calais. The Hundred Years' War was 
at an end (1453). The ambition of two warlike kings, Ed- 
ward III. and Henry V., had cost the country untold blood 
and treasure, and brought in the end only loss and shame. 

Weak Rule of Henry VI. During the war Henry VI. 
had grown to manhood. Gentle and pious enough, he lacked 
the energy and strength of character to rule in such rough 
times. Grasping nobles and dissolute soldiers returning 
from France kept England in a state of confusion. Jus- 



1450] HENRY VI. 143 

tice was not enforced, and the strong robbed the weak at 
pleasure. The soil, owing to bad methods of farming, had 
become poor, and large tracts which had been the homes 
of the poor were fenced in and turned into sheep pastures. 
Wool brought a good price and less labor was required to 
look after the flocks than to cultivate the soil. 

Murder of Suffolk. A king too weak either to win battles 
or to establish order was certain to be unpopular. The first 
to feel the public displeasure was the king's chancellor, the 
Duke of Suffolk, who had brought about the French mar- 
riage. The Parliament impeached him; that is, brought 
charges of misconduct against him. He fled from the country. 
But on the voyage he was captured by a company of rough 
sailors and killed. 

Houses of Lancaster and York. The Duke of Somerset, 
who succeeded Suffolk as the king's chief adviser, was, like the 
king, descended from John of Gaunt (fourth son of Ed- 
ward III.) and belonged to the House of Lancaster. Eichard, 
the Duke of York, now became the popular leader against the 
weak rule of the king. He was descended through his mother 
(sister of Edmund Mortimer, p. 131) from the third son of 
Edward III., and hence claimed to have a better right to the 
.throne than Henry VI. 

The birth of a son to Henry VI. took away Eichard's chance 
of a peaceable succession to the throne, and he resolved to 
maintain his rights by war. Thus arose a few years later a 
series of wars between the two rival houses of Lancaster and 
York for the kingship; they lasted, with brief intermissions, 
for thirty years and are called the Wars of the Eoses, because 
the badge of Lancaster was the red rose, and that of York the 
white rose. The nobles, particularly those of the north, 
were on the side of Lancaster, while those of the south and 
especially the people of London and the larger towns favored 
the House of York. The House of Lancaster also supported 



144 



HOUSE OF LANCASTER 



[1450 



the power of the church, while the Yorkists wanted the 
church to have less power and favored certain reforms. 

A Rebellion in Kent (1450) was the first rising in 
favor of Eichard. Thirty thousand men gathered under the 
leadership of Jack Cade, an Irishman who took the name of 



^ISLE OF MAN v' ^..Lancaster 

m 




England in the Wars of the Roses. 

Mortimer. The London people opened their gates to him, 
but soon had occasion to regret it, for his lawless followers 
began a career of murder and robbery, which ended in the 
death of Cade and the expulsion of his rabble from the city. 
The Wars of the Roses began with the battle of St. Al- 
bans (1455). The royal army attacked Richard's forces and 
was defeated. Somerset was killed, and the king wounded 



1461] HENRY VI. 145 

and taken. Kichard professed loyalty to him, accompanied 
him to London, and became protector dnring the king's illness. 
But Henry, soon recovering, dismissed him. 

Blore Heath and Northampton. Both sides again took 
up arms. The York party was defeated at Blore Heath, but 
inflicted a terrible defeat on the king at Northampton. 
Many of the nobles were killed, and the king was found alone 
in his tent. It was now arranged that Bichard should suc- 
ceed to the throne on the death of Henry, thus passing over 
the rights of Henry's son, Edward. 

Wakefield and Second St. Albans. Queen Margaret had- 
no intention of submitting to this slight to her son. In the 
north she easily enlisted a large army of rough border war- 
riors, and, promising them the plunder of the south, she 
attacked the Yorkists at Wakefield and completely routed 
them (1460). Bichard was slain, and his head, crowned in 
mockery with a paper crown, was placed over the gates of 
York. His eldest son, Edward, who was gathering troops 
in the west, won a victory at Mortimer's Cross on the Welsh 
border. But Margaret won another decisive victory at St. 
Albans and pushed on toward London. Her lawless follow- 
ers, scattering in search of plunder, could not be held together 
for the final struggle. The people of the capital rallied about 
Edward, and pursued Margaret northwards. 

At Towton, near York, the armies met (1461). It was 
to be a fierce and final struggle, and no quarter was expected, 
or given. The battle began at night with a heavy snowstorm 
blowing in the faces of the Lancastrians, and a swollen river 
blocking their retreat. By noon on the following day the 
side of York had won. Thirty thousand Englishmen lay dead 
upon the field. Among them were the chief nobles of the 
realm. Henry and Margaret escaped with their son and a 
few followers to Scotland, and Edward IV. became the first 
Yorkist king. 



146 HOUSE OF YORK [1461 

Edward IV., 1 1461-1483. 

Continuation of the War. Edward had been crowned 
at Westminster after the second battle of St. Albans. After 
the victory of Towton, he rode in triumph through the 
gates of his ancestral city of York, where the head of his 
murdered father was still shown. But Edward did not in- 
dulge his feelings of revenge, and no punishment was visited 
upon the city that had received his enemies, though his 
forgiveness did not extend to the leaders. The charge of 
treason was brought against all of them, and their property 
came into the possession of the crown. Edward returned 
to London, leaving the Earl of Warwick to conduct the war 
in the north. Margaret succeeded in obtaining help from 
the King of France, and advanced from Scotland with an 
army. But she was again defeated, and the deposed King 
Henry was captured and confined in the famous Tower of 
London. 

The King Maker is a title given by historians to Eichard 
Neville, Earl of Warwick. He appears first as the powerful 
noble to whose aid Edward was chiefly indebted for his crown. 
Several hundred manors, scattered throughout England, 
owned him as master. His seat was at Kenilworth Castle, 
where he entertained his followers with royal munificence. 
In his kitchen a huge caldron was always kept filled with 
boiling meat, and any one was at liberty to take away as 
many pieces as he could carry on a long dagger. In his 

1 HOUSE OF YORK. 
Richard, son of the Duke of York (p. 102) m. Anne Mortimer (p. 102) 

Richard, Duke of York 



Edward IV. Duke of Clarence Richard III. 

1 (1461-1 483) I (1483-1485) 

I i I Edward, 

Edward V. Richard Elizabeth of York Ear l oi Warwick 
(1483) (p. 156) 



1470] 



EDWARD IV. 



147 



home in London six oxen were required to furnish a breakfast 
to his followers. He rode about the country attended by 
five hundred re- $m 

tainers dressed in _ |H 
livery, on which was 
embroidered the bear « 




and ragged staff, the 
emblems of his 
house. His generous 
hospitality, his brav- 
ery, and his con- Ruins of Kenilworth Castle. 
sideration for those below him in rank made him a great 
favorite, and in whatever part of England he appeared, he 
never lacked followers. 

Edward's Mistakes. Warwick, having raised Edward to 
the throne, naturally expected to have control of the gov- 
ernment, and when the king took the matter of marriages and 
offices into his own hands, the earl was gravely offended. 
Edward married Elizabeth Woodville, a widow of no rank, and 
bestowed vast estates and titles upon her numerous relatives. 
Not only Warwick, but other great Yorkist nobles were 
deeply offended at seeing members of this family receiving 
greater honors than the first lords of the country. Finally, 
Edward married his sister to Charles, the Duke of Burgundy, 
while Warwick was away arranging a marriage between her 
and the son of the French king. This so incensed the earl 
that before long he met Margaret in France, and with her 
and the Duke of Clarence, Edward's brother, planned to in- 
vade England. 

Edward had been a disappointment to his subjects. They 
had looked for a king who would maintain order and secure 
justice to the humblest citizen. But as soon as he felt secure 
on his throne, he gave himself up to selfish and wicked pleas- 
ures, while his people were robbed of their property by the 



148 HOUSE OF YORK [1470 

lords, who compelled judges and juries to decide every dis- 
pute in their favor. 

Henry VI. Restored. Edward was rudely aroused from 
his indolence when Warwick landed in England in 1470. As 
he was about to sit down to dinner, an attendant whispered 
to him that armed men were surrounding the house. They 
were tossing up their hats and crying, " God save King 
Henry ! " He had just time to slip away with a few follow- 
ers to the coast and get aboard a ship bound for Flanders. 
Warwick now brought poor old King Henry out of the Tower 
and recrowned him with a great deal of ceremony. This time 
the change of kings was made without bloodshed. 

Barnet and Tewkesbury. With the help of his brother- 
in-law, the Duke of Burgundy, Edward raised an army of 
2,000 men. Landing at Eavenspur in Yorkshire, he marched 
to London. Clarence, "false, fleeting, perjured Clarence," 
forsook Warwick and joined his brother. Warwick found out 
too late that he had been betrayed; in the battle of Barnet 
he was defeated and killed. The same day Queen Margaret 
landed with a fresh army at Weymouth. Hearing news of 
Barnet, she started on a rapid march to the north. But Ed- 
ward cut off her army at Tewkesbury, defeated it, and put the 
Lancastrian leaders to death, including Margaret's son, the 
young Prince Edward. Margaret was made prisoner, and 
Henry VI. was again confined in the Tower, where he was 
shortly afterwards murdered. 

Edward IV. again King. Edward's throne was now safe, 
for not one descendant of Henry IV. was left alive. More- 
over, Edward had greater power in the government than the 
Lancastrian kings had possessed. So many of the nobility 
had been killed in the Wars of the Boses that the barons were 
not much to be feared. And the people cared more for order 
and a chance to go on quietly about their business, than they 
did for sharing in the work of government. Edward revived 



1478] 



EDWARD IV. 



149 



the old practice of taking money from his people as forced 
gifts, or " benevolences." His good looks and sociable ways 
made him highly popular, and the people submitted to this 
form of arbitrary taxation without resistance. One old lady 
of whom he asked ten pounds said he was such a good-looking 




Caxton and the First Printing Press in England. 

young man that she would give him twenty. When Edward 
kissed her in accepting the gift she gave him forty. 

Edward planned a war with France to regain the provinces 
lost by Henry VI., and invaded that country in 1475. But 
the shrewd French king bribed him to go back to England 
without fighting. 

Shortly after this, he brought a charge of treason against 



150 HOUSE OF YORK [1478 

his brother the Duke of Clarence, who wished to marry 
the daughter of the Duke of Burgundy, a match not approved 
by Edward. Clarence was also accused of conspiring with a 
sorceress to put Edward off the throne. He was confined in 
the Tower, where he was put to death, it is said, by drowning 
in a butt of Malmsey wine. 

Edward's dissolute life made him old before his time. He 
became sad and morose. He knew the nobles hated him; 
there were few whose relatives he had not in some way de- 
stroyed. He became weary of life, and died, worn out in body 
and mind, leaving two young sons and several daughters. 

The Introduction of Printing was, perhaps, the most im- 
portant event of Edward IV/s reign. William Caxton set up 
a press at Westminster a few years before Edward's death. He 
was a native of Kent and had traveled in Germany and Flan- 
ders, where he became a printer. Printing from movable type 
was invented in Germany about thirty years before it was 
introduced into England. The people of that time looked 
upon the printing press as a curious toy, little dreaming of 
the wonderful changes that it was destined to make in the his- 
tory of England before the next century should close. 

Edward V., 1483. 

Richard of Gloucester. During the Wars of the Eoses, the 
idea had grown up that the only way for a king to rule 
in safety was to put to death all those who could possibly 
have any interest in opposing him. This method had been 
pursued in some other countries, but was rather new in Eng- 
land. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the late king's brother, 
was a prudent and far-seeing man, but like most men of his 
time in high position, he thought as little of killing another 
man who stood in his way, as a cat would think of killing 
a mouse. He was slightly deformed in one shoulder, and his 
left arm had been palsied from birth. But otherwise he was 



1483] EDWARD V. 151 

a fine-looking man and had the same good-natured qualities 
that had made his brother so well liked by the people. He 
had been a stanch supporter of Edward, and had fought 
bravely for him during the late wars. But there is no doubt 
that he kept steadily before himself the design of securing the 
crown. 

Murder of the Queen's Relatives. He now had good 
reason to believe that Earl Eivers, the Marquis of Dorset, 
and Sir Eichard Grey, near relatives of the queen, who had 
once been plain Elizabeth Woodville, had formed a plot to 
kill him and assume the government. Lord Hastings, a mem- 
ber of the council, had turned against him and joined the 
queen's party. Eichard at once made his plans, but concealed 
them until the time for action came. He took the oath of 
allegiance to Edward V., his young nephew, and put on an 
appearance of loyalty. Grey and Eivers, who had charge of 
Edward's education, decided to bring him to London to be 
crowned. On the road Eichard and the Duke of Buckingham 
overtook them with a strong force, seized Edward, and sent 
Eivers and Grey to prison, where they were soon afterwards 
beheaded without a trial. 

One morning the council met to make plans for crowning 
the young king. Eichard, now protector of the kingdom, 
came in late, but appeared to be in the greatest good humor. 
After a time, he left the room with Buckingham. When he 
returned his face was changed. With a threatening look he 
asked Hastings, "What have they deserved who have plotted 
my death ?" 

Hastings replied that such persons deserved to die. 

" That sorceress, my brother's wife, and others with her !" 
Eichard exclaimed. " See how they have bewitched me ! Be- 
hold my arm, how it is withered up ! " And he showed them 
his palsied arm, which they knew had always been so, but they 
did not dare to speak, not knowing what he was coming at. 



152 



HOUSE OF YORK 



[148c 



Finally Hastings said, " Certainly, my Lord Protector, if 
they have done this thing and — " 

Here Eichard, in a fine pretense of rage, cried out, " You 
talk to me of ifs and ands. I tell you they have done it. 
Thou art a traitor." He struck his fist upon the table, and 
instantly the room was filled with armed men. By his orders 
Hastings was hurried out and his head was chopped off at once 
upon a log which happened to lie outside the house. 

Richard's Suc- 
cess. Richard then 
persuaded the queen 
to give up her young- 
est son, and confined 
both his nephews in 
the Tower. In or- 
der to make people 
believe that he had 
a right to the throne, 
he circulated a re- 
port that Edward IV. 
was not the son of 
Eichard of York, and 
that anyway he had 
never been legally 
married to Elizabeth 
Woodville, and that 
therefore his sons 
could not inherit the 
crown. He caused a 
minister to preach 
this story at a prom- 
inent church, and his 
friend the Duke of Buckingham made a speech to the citizens 
in Guildhall, telling them the same thing. 




The Princes in the Tower. 



1483] RICHARD III. 153 

The next day Buckingham, with the Lord Mayor and 
others, waited upon Kichard at his palace and offered him 
the crown. Kichard pretended to be greatly surprised and 
offended. He said he was not ambitious and did not wish to 
be king, but would guard the crown for his nephew. Then 
Buckingham told him that the people of England would 
never consent to be ruled by a man whose parents were not 
properly married, for that would be contrary to law. Kich- 
ard pretended to be greatly affected by this, but he recovered 
soon, and said that as it was his duty to obey the voice of the 
people, he would consent to take the " kingdoms of England 
and France, the one to rule, and the other, by God's grace, to 
take again and subdue." 

Richard III., 1483-1485. 

Death of the Princes. So far Richard had gone without 
opposition, but his treachery and cold-blooded murders 
alarmed his followers among the nobles for their own safety. 
Any man who crossed his path might be killed. Buckingham, 
who was descended from Edward III. and was a near heir 
to the throne, was the first to withdraw. He had gone far 
with Kichard in his career of ambition and murder, but now 
foresaw trouble. There had been made some attempts to 
rouse the people to release the princes. Such attempts were 
certain to be made when they grew older, so Richard had them 
murdered. Sir Thomas More tells us that two men were sent 
to their chamber at night and smothered them in their bed. 
Richard then gave out a report that they had mysteriously 
disappeared. But no one was deceived, and people were horri- 
fied that innocent children should be murdered. Long years 
afterwards some workmen dug up the skeletons of two children 
at the foot of a staircase in the Tower. 

Henry Tudor. There was one Lancastrian claimant to the 
throne whom neither Edward IY. nor Richard III. was able 



154 HOUSE OF YORK [1483 

to reach. This was Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, whose 
mother was descended from John of Gaunt. He had long been 
living in exile, but Buckingham now planned to have him 
return and head an army to depose Eichard. 

Richard's Defeat and Death at Bosworth. Henry Tu- 
dor's first attempt to enter England ended in failure. His 
fleet was scattered by a storm, and Buckingham was cap- 
tured and beheaded. But in the summer of 1485 he came 
again, landing at Milford Haven on the coast of Wales. As 
Henry's father was a Welshman, the people readily joined 
him. Eichard mustered an army twice the size of Henry's. 
But when the two armies met on Bosworth field, Eichard 
saw that he was betrayed; for part of his forces went over 
to the enemy and another part refused to fight. Eichard 
and a few faithful men charged the enemy. His quick eye 
caught sight of his rival's standard, and with a shout of " trea- 
son ! " he put spurs to his horse and dashed on, hoping to 
kill Henry in a hand-to-hand fight. The standard-bearer fell 
beneath his sword, but Eichard was unhorsed. 

In Shakespeare's play, at this point a friend urges Eichard 
to retreat, but he replies, 

" Slave ! I have set my life upon a cast, 
And I will stand the hazard of the die. 
I think there be six Richmonds in the field ; 
Five have I slain to-day instead of him. 
A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! " 

After fighting bravely on foot, Eichard fell, bleeding from 
a dozen wounds. His battered crown was found near by, and 
was placed upon his rival's head while the army (there was 
now but one) echoed the shout of " Long live King Henry ! " 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How can you explain the defeat of the English in France? 

2. What led to the Wars of the Roses? What important results did 

they have? 



1485] RICHARD III. 155 

3. Compare Jack Cade and Wat Tyler. 

4. What led to the uprising against Edward IV.? Compare his 

government with that of Henry VI. 

5. Compare Queen Margaret and Warwick as leaders. Which had 

the better cause? Why? 

6. How did the Wars of the Roses show the need of a strong king? 

7. Why did Warwick restore Henry VI.? Was this wise? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Joan of Arc. Catherwood, Days of Jeanne d'Arc; Green, Short 

History, pp. 274-279. 

2. Warwick, the King Maker. Creighton, Stories of English His- 

tory, Ch. XXVII. ; Lytton, Last of the Barons. 

3. The Printing Press. Green, Short History, pp. 295-298. 

4. The Two Roses. Church, Stories of English History, Ch. VI.; 

E. S. Holt, Red and White. 



NlVER 10. 



VII. THE HOUSE OF TUDOK. 1 

A. The Beginning of New Things. 
Henry VII., 1485-1509. 

The Union of York and Lancaster was accomplished by 
the accession of Henry VII. to the throne and his marriage 
with Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward IV. There 
was, however, still living a son of the Duke of Clarence, 
who had been made Earl of Warwick. And there were still 
rumors afloat that Eichard of York, the younger of the two 
murdered princes, was still alive. To prevent any plot of the 
Yorkists to place the Earl of Warwick on the throne, Henry 
confined him in the Tower. 

Increase of the King's Power. In the time of Henry 
VIL, the king obtained far greater power than ever before, 
chiefly through the weakening of the nobility. It was the 
nobles who forced John to sign the Great Charter and who, 
with the people, compelled later kings to recognize the power 
of Parliament. But in the reigns of weak kings the nobles 
and their retainers had oppressed the people, and now the 

1 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR 

Owen Tudor, m. Catherine, widow of Henry V. 

Margaret Beaufort (p. 102) m. Edmund Tudor. 

Henry VIL, m. Elizabeth of York (p. 146) 

(1485-1509) 1 

r — ' i Z i 

Henry VIII. (1509-1547) Margaret, m. Mary, m. 

James IV. of Scotland Charles, Duke 

I : — i | of Suffolk 

Edward VI. Mary Elizabeth James V. of Scotland | 

(1547-1553) (1553-1558) (1558-1603) I rt jj" ry c ^ 

| Duke of Suffolk 

James VI. of Scotland | 

and I. of England (p. 203) Lady Jane Grey 

156 



1485] 



HENRY VII. 



157 




people were again ready to help the king against the nobles, 
as in the days of Henry II. There were also several other 
reasons for the weakening of the nobles. 

One has been 
already men- 
tioned, namely, 
the destruction 
of many nobles by the Wars of 
the Eoses. 

Another cause was a change 
in the mode of fighting. Dur- 
ing the Norman period, the 
charge of a body of armor-clad 
knights was irresistible; but 
English archers had now 

learned to shoot an arrow so 

Hand Cannon — Fourteenth 
iar and so swiit that they Century. 

could pierce the knight's armor and kill him before he could 
do them any damage. 

Then the power of the nobles was chiefly due to their 
strong castles, which it was very difficult to take by any ma- 
chinery then known. But the invention of gunpowder and the 
use of cannon had changed this. We can not say where gun- 
powder was first used in battle. It is said that the English 
used it at the battle of Crecy to frighten the horses of the 
French. We know that the Turks used cannon to batter down 
the walls of Constantinople in 1453. From the time of Ed- 
ward III. we hear considerable about the use of gunpowder 
in England. The smaller fire-arms were crude and did not 
at once take the place of the bow and lance. But cannon were 
made of sufficient power to batter down stone walls, thus 
enabling the king to destroy the castles of the nobles. As 
cannon were very expensive, none but the king could afford to 
keep them. 



158 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1485 

The Law against Maintenance and Livery forbade the 
lords to maintain bands of men wearing their uniform. This 
had been a great evil in the land since the time of Eichard 
II., when the lords began to hire retainers. Henry VII. took 
care that the law was strictly enforced. Any one who broke 
it was fined or imprisoned. Henry once paid a visit to his 
friend the Earl of Oxford, a man who had helped him to 
defeat Eichard at Bosworth. In honor of the king, the 
earl had drawn up a large body of his retainers wearing his 
arms upon their breasts. 

"And who are these, my lord ?" asked Henry, as he surveyed 
the men. 

" They are my retainers, and are here to see and honor 
your Majesty," answered the earl. 

" I thank you for your good cheer," said the king, " but 
I can not endure to have my laws broken in my sight. My 
attorney will see you." The earl was afterwards brought 
before the king's court and fined 10,000 pounds. 

The Star Chamber Court was established to bring power- 
ful offenders to justice. In this court they could not bully 
the judges and juries as in their own neighborhoods. It took 
its name from the decorations on the ceiling of the room 
where it met. The king's own judges and officers conducted 
its business. Any nobleman who broke the laws or took part 
in rebellions or plots against the king was tried and pun- 
ished with as little fear as though he had been a peasant. In 
later times this court had to be abolished because the kings 
of that period made it a means of injustice and oppression. 

How the King Raised Money. The Parliament had 
kept down the power of the king by refusing to grant him 
any money until he had redressed the grievances from which 
they suffered. But Henry adopted methods of raising money 
which made him independent of Parliament, and which also 
kept those men in subjection who were likely to become 



1491] HENRY VII. 159 

dangerous. The Earl of Oxford was not the only one who 
paid an enormous fine for keeping retainers. The king had 
his agents keeping sharp watch all through the country for 
other offenders, and many a noble had to give up a large part 
of his fortune for breaking this law. 

Benevolences; Morton's Fork. Henry thought it bet- 
ter to offend a few people by a heavy tax than to offend the 
whole people by laying a general tax, so he developed a sys- 
tem of benevolences. The king's chief minister, Cardinal 
Morton, had a way of forcing these gifts that gave rise to 
the expression " Morton's fork." If he saw that a man lived 
in good style and spent money freely, he would say, " Surely 
this man is rich and can afford to make a large gift to the 
king." On the other hand, if he saw that a citizen was 
economical, he would say, " This man is very saving, and 
surely has laid up a great deal of money and can well afford 
to pay." And so a man was pretty certain to be caught on 
one prong of the Cardinal's fork. 

Henry was a lover of peace as well as of money, and took 
part in no wars of any consequence. The money granted by 
Parliament for wars was carefully stored away in the royal 
treasury. 

Several Attempts were made to Dethrone Henry. 
The -first serious attempt came from the direction of Ireland 
(1487). The Yorkists had trained a certain Lambert Sim- 
nel, the son of a baker at Oxford, to act the part of the Earl 
of Warwick, pretending that he had escaped from the Tower, 
where Henry had placed him. Simnel was crowned at Dub- 
lin, in the English part of Ireland, where the people strongly 
favored the House of York. One of the ministers of Eichard 
III., named Lovel, had secured for him also the help of 2,000 
German troops. The Irish and German forces entered Lan- 
cashire, where they expected to recruit an army. But not an 
Englishman rose, and the invaders were defeated. Henry, to 



160 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1487 

show his contempt for his rival, made him a turnspit in his 
kitchen. Lovel escaped and could not be found. Nearly two 
hundred years afterwards some workmen accidentally found 
in an underground chamber at Minster Lovel in Oxfordshire, 
the skeleton of a man seated in a chair with his head resting 
on a table. It is supposed Lovel had been hidden there and 
deserted by some servant who was to provide for him. 

In 1492 another pretender appeared, named Perkin War- 
beck, who was claimed by his followers to be Eichard, the 
younger son of Edward IV. So carefully had he been pre- 
pared for the part he played, that he deceived many. The 
King of Scotland once took up arms in his behalf. Then the 
Cornishmen, who had been offended by a tax-levy, joined 
him, but were defeated. Warbeck was captured and confined 
in prison. Transferred to the Tower, he planned to escape 
with the Earl of Warwick. Henry, anxious to have them out 
of the way, consented to the execution of both, although he 
declared Warbeck was "not worth a rope." 

Henry's throne being secure, his children were sought in 
marriage by other royal families. His eldest son, Arthur, 
married Catherine of Aragon, daughter of the King of Spain. 
Arthur dying the next year, negotiations were begun for 
marrying the young widow to Henry, the second son of 
Henry VII. The king's eldest daughter, Margaret, was mar- 
ried to James IV., the King of Scotland. 

Commerce and Explorations. There was no English 
navy in the fifteenth century for the protection of trade, and 
piracy was common. Merchant vessels went armed. Pur 
trading was now begun with the coasts of the Baltic, and in 
the west of England companies were formed to engage in 
the fisheries around Iceland. Domestic trade was protected 
and flourished. 

It was during this reign that Columbus made for Spain 
his wonderful westward voyage to what he supposed was 



1509] 



HENRY VII. 



161 



eastern Asia. A few years later, John Cabot, a Venetian 
merchant, was authorized by Henry VII. to make two voy- 
ages (1497 and 1498), and on his and his son Sebastian's 
discoveries along the eastern coast of North America England 
later based her claim to the continent. 

A New Era begins with the rule of the Tudors. The 
period called the "Middle Ages" was now to end, and the 
great events which mark the beginning of modern history had 
already occurred at the end of Henry VII.'s reign. The 
New World was found. G-unpowder, the mariner's compass, 
and printing were in use. The age of feudalism had passed 
away, and the period of absolute monarchy had begun in 
Spain and France as well as in England. Besides these 
events, the learning aJ 

of ancient Greece and 
Eome was finding its 
way into England. 
The Turks, by the 
capture of Constanti- 
nople in 1453, had 
driven the Greek 
scholars into Italy, 
where they had estab- 
lished universities and 
schools. From Italy the influence of the new learning spread 
to England and the other countries of Europe. Learned men 
began to translate books into English, and the printing press 
made it possible for the people to read them. An age of 
thought, of enlightenment, and of progress, undreamed of by 
the people of those days, was soon to come. 

Henry's Tomb. Henry built a splendid chapel on the 
east of Westminster Abbey for his burial place. His mag- 
nificent tomb, cut out of black marble by a noted Italian 
sculptor, may still be seen. He died in 1509, and his son, 




Tomb of Henry VIII. 



162 



TITE HOUSE OF TUDOR 



[1509 



Henry VIII., succeeded to the throne of a peaceful and pros- 
perous kingdom. 




Henry VIII., 1509-1547. 

Henry VIII. was a talented and athletic young man, " as 
handsome as nature could make him." He had frank, win- 
ning manners, enjoyed hunting and bowling, and in the use 
of the lance and bow he could outshoot and outthrow any 
man in England. He knew Latin, Spanish, and French, 
and had considerable musical ability. He retained the same 
council, or body of advisers, that his father had. But there 
were two men, Empson and Dudley, that were hated by the 

people because they had been 
employed by the late king to 
collect illegal taxes. Although 
they had merely carried out 
the king's orders, they were ac- 
cused and convicted of treason 
and put to death. The trial of 
a prominent man by judge and 
jury had become a mere farce, 
and continued so throughout 
Henry's reign, inasmuch as 
they always decided disputes 
according to the king's will 
without considering whether the defendant was guilty or inno- 
cent. Henry now married the Princess Catherine of Aragon, 
his brother's widow, a marriage to which the Pope had given 
his consent. 

By these measures the king's popularity was made com- 
plete. Leaving the cares of the government to his ministers, 
he now set to work to enjoy the well-filled treasury that his 
father had left him. For two years, music, festivals, shoot- 




Henry viii. 



1519] HENRY VIII. 163 

ing matches, tournaments, and the society of gay ladies and 
gentlemen occupied his time. 

The Holy League. But Henry soon became ambitious 
to have a hand in affairs outside of England, although the 
wisest of his councilors had learned that it was best to 
avoid being mixed up with foreign wars. At this time Italy 
was not one nation, like England, or France, or Spain, but 
was divided into a number of petty states. Venice and Flor- 
ence were independent republics. Spain, France, and the 
Pope ruled over parts of Italy. In 1511 the Pope formed the 
Holy League to drive the French out of Italy, and Henry 
joined with Spain and Germany to help him. Henry's allies 
obtained what they were seeking, but he himself spent a 
great deal of money and gained nothing of importance. He 
did help Maximilian, the German Emperor, to win one battle 
against the French in Flanders, " a greater victory than 
which/' he wrote to Catherine, "was never won anywhere." 
The French humorously called it the " Battle of the Spurs," 
because their own men ran away so fast. 

Battle of Flodden Field. The attack on France stirred 
up her old ally, Scotland, and James IV., who was the 
brother-in-law of Henry, led an army into England. It was 
terribly defeated through the skill of the English general, 
the Earl of Surrey. The Scotch king, the chief of his no- 
bility, and ten thousand men were left dead upon the field. 

Henry was shrewd enough to see that his European allies 
were making a cafs-paw of him, and he made peace with 
France for a large sum of money. Soon afterwards the old 
French king died, and Francis I. became King of France. 
In Spain, Charles V., the nephew of Queen Catherine, suc- 
ceeded to the throne; he was the ruler of the Netherlands 
also, and was elected Emperor of the German states. These 
three young -and ambitious sovereigns were now leaders in the 
affairs of Europe. 






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1527] HENRY VIII. 165 

Wolsey and his Plans. At this time Thomas Wolsey was 
the chief minister of King Henry. He had risen to high 
position through the church, which was at that time the only 
way a man of humble birth could rise in public life. He had 
been a chaplain of Henry VII., and was well thought of by 
that king. Henry VIII. soon found that Wolsey had great 
ability, so he made him Archbishop of York and then chan- 
cellor. 

Francis I. and Charles V. were about to wage war for the 
control of Italy, and each wished to enlist the services of 
Henry. Francis invited Henry to a conference which was 
held near the boundary between Calais and France; there 
they entertained each other with such lavish magnificence 
that the place was named the " Field of the Cloth of Gold." 
But Wolsey, who was ambitious to be chosen Pope, persuaded 
Henry to ally himself with Charles, for he knew that the 
Emperor could give him more help than the French king, in 
getting that office. 

Again Henry's allies were successful, while Henry gained 
nothing. And Wolsey was not elected Pope. So great did 
the power of Charles V. now become that Henry and Wolsey 
made a new alliance with France. Their policy was to main- 
tain the "balance of power," a plan which has often been 
followed since, and which consists in the union of weak 
nations against one that is too powerful. 

The New Learning; More; Colet. During Henry's 
time the study of Greek was introduced into the colleges at 
Oxford and Cambridge. John Colet, a clergyman, had stud- 
ied this language in Paris and Italy. Eeturning to London, 
he founded the school at St. Paul's. He began the practice 
of reading the Bible to the people and explaining its mean- 
ing. Sir Thomas More, a famous lawyer of London, was 
also a patron of study; he was a great favorite of the king. 
More and Colet invited a noted Dutch scholar, Erasmus, to 






166 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1514 

England, and he spent some time at Cambridge, where he 
prepared a scholarly edition of the New Testament, the first 
ever printed in both Greek and Latin. 

What was sneeringly called at the time "the new learn- 
ing" meant a great deal more than the study of the ancient 
Greek and Latin authors. These languages were very im- 
portant then because they contained all that had been learned 
in the past. But men now began to have a desire to search out 
things for themselves, and did not wish to accept everything 
as truth because somebody said so. Erasmus tells a story that 
illustrates the situation. On being shown a relic at one of 
the convents, he inquired of the abbot how he knew that that 
particular toe had been part of St. Paul's foot. The indig- 
nant abbot gave him a scornful look and said : " Do you not 
see that it is so labeled ? " People were expected to believe 
and accept as true anything and everything that the king 
and the church told them. The new learning demanded that 
things should be proved. 

The Protestant Reformation. Wyclif and the Lollards 
had refused to believe certain doctrines of the church. Al- 
though compelled to be silent, the movement begun by him 
did not die out. It spread to Bohemia, Germany, and Italy. 
In Germany, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, a 
movement was begun by a monk, Martin Luther, that led to 
more serious consequences. Luther declared that the Catholic 
Church and the Pope did not teach the religion taught by 
Christ in the New Testament. A general revolt against the 
Catholic Church was stirred up in Germany, which led to 
bloody wars between the Catholic princes and those who fa- 
vored the ideas of Luther. The last of these wars, called 
the "Thirty Years' War" (1618-1648), ended in establish- 
ing the right of the German states to the religion of their 
choice. 

During the century from the time of Luther's first protest 



1529] HENRY VIII. 167 

in 1517 to the time of the Thirty Years' War, the " Keforma- 
tion," as 1 this revolt against the Catholic Church was called, 
had spread to France, Sweden, the Netherlands, England, and 
Scotland. It was attended by wars, massacres, and perse- 
cution. People were hanged, tortured, and burned by 
thousands for their religious opinions, until the world grew 
tired of it. But out of all the strife have come our religious 
liberty and our free government. The trouble all arose be- 
cause kings and governments in those days insisted on telling 
people what they must accept in church matters. 

How Henry Regarded Church Matters. Henry was at 
first sternly opposed to this movement against the authority 
of the church. He wrote a reply to one of Luther's books, 
and sent a copy of it to the Pope. Pope Clement was so 
pleased with it that he gave Henry the title " Defender of the 
Faith." Later on, as we shall see, Henry maintained his 
right to this title, only it was not the faith of the church, but 
the faith of Henry that he defended. 

The Question of the King's Divorce. After the king 
had been married to Catherine some fifteen years, he grew 
tired of her and wished that he might marry a beautiful young 
lady of his court, Anne Boleyn. At that time the question 
of marriages was entirely under the authority of the church, 
and no divorce was granted to persons who had been lawfully 
married. Henry now came to the conclusion that it had been 
unlawful for him to marry his brother's widow. The Pope 
had given him permission to do so, but he held that the per- 
mission had been improperly granted, and that his marriage 
with Catherine was no marriage at all. He therefore em- 
ployed Wolsey to obtain from the Pope the desired declara- 
tion that the marriage was invalid. Wolsey's mission was 
a failure; after long delay a papal court tried the case in 
England, but it did not have power to make the declaration, 
and the Pope himself decided not to make it. 



168 



THE HOUSE OF TUDOR 



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Trial of Queen Catherine. 

The king was so angry at this failure that he dismissed 
Wolsey, took from him all his property, and finally ordered 
him to prison on a charge of treason. But on the way to 
London Wolsey fell ill and died at a convent at Leicester. 
Only his death saved him from execution. His fall from 
power and the king's ingratitude had broken his heart, and, 
as Shakespeare puts it in the play " King Henry VIIL," he 
cried out to his secretary: 

" Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition : 
By that sin fell the angels ; how can man, then, 
The image of his Maker, hope to win by it? 
* * * O, Cromwell, Cromwell ! 
Had I but served my God with half the zeal 
I served my king, He would not in mine age 
Have left me naked to mine enemies." 



Henry next, at the suggestion of Dr. Thomas Cranmer of 
Cambridge, decided to inquire of the universities of Europe 



1536] HENRY VIII. 169 

what they thought about his marriage with Catherine. Some 
of them gave an answer favorable to Henry. The king now 
resolved to set the Pope at defiance. He assembled the clergy 
and compelled them to address him as " Supreme Head of 
the English Church and clergy." Next, he got from Par- 
liament a law forbidding appeals from an English court to 
any authority outside of England. Cranmer was made Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, and in his court declared the marriage 
of Catherine void. Henry had already married Anne Boleyn, 
and a few days after Cranmer's decision she was publicly 
crowned. The Pope now sent his decision to England, de- 
claring that Catherine was the king's lawful wife. 

Separation of the Church from Rome. At the next ses- 
sion of Parliament, in 1534, laws were passed forbidding all 
appeals and the payment of money in any way to the Pope. 
Another law, called the Act of Succession, declared Henry's 
marriage with Catherine unlawful, that with Anne lawful, 
and provided that the children of Henry and Anne should 
succeed to the throne. Another law, the Act of Supremacy, 
declared Henry the Supreme Head of the Church in England, 
and that any one who questioned it, or refused to acknowledge 
it when questioned, was guilty of high treason. The great 
Sir Thomas More, who had been made Henry's chancellor, 
and John Eisher, Bishop of Eochester, refused to support 
these laws and were beheaded. More told the king he was 
willing to acknowledge Anne's children to be the lawful suc- 
cessors to the throne, because Parliament had made them so, 
but he could not admit that she was the king's lawful wife. 
All Europe was shocked at his execution. Charles V. said 
he would rather have lost the choicest city in his empire 
than such a friend as More. 

The King's Later Marriages. Anne was soon accused 
of unfaithfulness to her lord. Henry lost no time in seek- 
ing a new divorce, but ordered her and five gentlemen of the 



170 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1536 

court, her accomplices, to execution. No sooner had their 
heads rolled into the dust than the king married Jane Sey- 
mour, Anne's maid of honor, who died in the following year. 
The king now commissioned his new minister, Thomas Crom- 
well, to find him another wife. Cromwell thought it would be 
a good thing for Henry to marry Anne of Cleves, a German 
princess, to strengthen the friendship of England with the 
German Protestants. He showed the king her picture, which 
represented her as a very beautiful woman. But when Anne 
reached England, Henry discovered that she was plain. Six 
months afterwards he divorced her, and before long he had 
Cromwell's head cut off. In the same year, the king married 
a beautiful young girl of his own court, Catherine Howard, 
but before another year had ended, the jealous tyrant sent 
her to the block. His sixth and last wife was Catherine Parr, 
who lived in peace with her despotic husband. 

The King Suppresses the Monasteries. When Henry 
began his reign, perhaps one third of the kingdom was in the 
possession of the church. The cathedrals, monasteries, chap- 
els, and abbeys held estates, by the income of which they 
were maintained. Wolsey and More had turned some of 
the smaller monastic institutions into schools and colleges. 
Now the idea occurred to Henry that he might close the 
monasteries and take their estates for himself. 

Henry said that these places were in the possession of 
vicious and ignorant monks who had entered monastic life on 
account of laziness or poverty. He said that their charities 
supported a multitude of vagabonds who ought to be made 
to do honest labor. And more than this, he called them mere 
nests of treason, since they opposed the laws passed by Parlia- 
ment making the king the head of the church. The fact 
that they held to the Pope rather than to Henry was enough 
to destroy them. 

Henry's agent Cromwell undertook the work of " reform," 



1536] 



HENRY VIII. 



171 




as the suppression of the monasteries was called. The first 
act of Parliament closed the smaller ones, but a few years 
later the others also were swept away. The king's agents vis- 
ited and inspected these institutions and were supposed to find 
some irregularity in 
their management as 
a just ground for 
closing them. The 
monks and nuns were 
then turned adrift; 
but some were pen- 
sioned. The estates A Ruined Abbey. 
not retained for the king's own use were given to his friends. 
Many a noble family in England dates the beginning of its 
fortune from a gift of monastery lands. The splendid build- 
ings were stripped of everything of value, the images were 
thrown down, windows of beautiful stained glass were shat- 
tered, and only the ruined, moss-grown walls now remain to 
tell the story of the past. 

Insurrection in the North. The lower classes in Eng- 
land had fallen into worse condition during Henry's reign 
than before. The practice of changing farms into sheep 
pastures still went on, leaving many of the farming and 
laboring class homeless. Many had lived on the charities of 
the monasteries; and the closing of these not only deprived 
them of that relief, but added to their numbers many vagrant 
monks. A host of 30,000 discontented men assembled in 
Yorkshire and petitioned the king to restore the religious 
houses and remit the last tax levied. 

The king replied: "How presumptuous are ye, the rude 
commons of one shire, and one of the most brute and beastly 
of the whole realm, to take upon you, contrary to God's law 
and man's law, to rule your prince, whom ye are bound to 
obey and serve!" This insurrection, sometimes called the 



172 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1536 

" Pilgrimage of Grace/' was put down with a strong hand and 
about a hundred of the leaders were executed. 

The Ten Articles and the Six Articles. In 1536 the 
king informed his subjects what they 'might believe in mat- 
ters of religion. He issued a creed of ten articles, and every 
man at the peril of his head must accept and obey them. 
Certain articles in this creed favored the reformers. Three 
years later, the king and Parliament issued a new creed of 
six articles, supporting the chief doctrines of the Catholic 
Church. With this " whip of six strings " he persecuted his 
people until the end of his reign. Any one who disagreed 
with him, was to lose his property for the first offense; for 
the second he lost his life. In two weeks, five hundred people 
were arrested, and during the rest of Henry's life, which 
stretched out eight years longer, twenty-eight were put to 
death. 

Last Years of the King. Henry now had three children : 
Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Spain; Elizabeth, daugh- 
ter of Anne Boleyn ; and his only son, the child of Jane Sey- 
mour, who succeeded him as Edward VI. The king had 
grown, in his later years, to an unwieldy size, and suffered 
constantly from some painful disease. He died in 1547. 
His reign is chiefly to be remembered for the change he 
made in the government of the church. 



& 



QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How do you explain the increase of royal power in the time of 

Henry VII.? 

2. Compare Henry VII. 's methods of raising money with those of 

Edward I. 

3. With what king may Henry YItl. be compared? Why did he 

persecute both Catholics and Protestants? 

4. How do you account for the great poverty of Henry VIII.'s time? 

5. Why did Henry VIII. set up an independent church? 

6. Why do we date modern history from Henry VII.? 

7. What was the New Learning? The Reformation? 



!547] EDWARD VI. 



173 



TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Sir Thomas More. Kendall, Source Book, pp. 132-144 ; Goninie 

The Kings' Story Book, Ch. XXI. 

2. Wolsey. Green, Short History, pp. 325-331. 

3. The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Morris, Historical Tales Ena- 

lish, pp. 201-215. 

4. Perkin Warbeck. Mary W. Shelley, Perkin Warbeck. 

B. Religious Strife. 

Edward VI., i547"i553- 

Edward VI., a delicate, studious lad, became king at 
the age of nine years. He had been carefully trained in 
the new learning and in the ideas of Protestantism. As 
soon as he could write, he was taught to keep a journal of 
everything that interested him. This journal is still pre- 
served and shows that he was very studious. Here is one of 
the questions given him to study: "Whether it be better 
for the commonwealth that the power be in the nobility or in 
the people ? " 

Edward Seymour, Earl of Somerset. Henry VIII. had, 
in his will, appointed a council of sixteen men, who were to 
rule until the young king reached the age of eighteen. As 
it would not be possible for so many to agree upon a plan of 
government, they placed the power in the hands of one of 
their number, the Earl of Somerset, brother of Jane Seymour, 
the king's mother. There were some very difficult questions 
to settle, and Somerset soon had his hands full. 

Battle of Pinkie. Henry VIII. had made an agreement 
with some of the Scotch that Mary Stuart, their infant 
queen, should marry his son, Edward, and thus peacefully 
unite the two kingdoms. But when Somerset tried to have 
them carry out the agreement, the Catholic party in Scot- 
land prevented it. Somerset led an army into Scotland to 
enforce the marriage, and by the aid of his cannon and mus- 
kets defeated the Scotch with terrible loss at Pinkie. This 

NlVER II. 



174 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1547 

only made the Scotch more stubborn in their refusal to sur- 
render the little five-year-old queen. As one old Scotchman 
said : " They misliked not the match, but the manner of 
the wooing." Mary was taken to France and was soon mar- 
ried to the French prince. 

Internal Troubles. Henry had established an independ- 
ent church by putting himself in the place of the Pope, and 
had destroyed the monastic system. But the doctrines and 
teachings of the Catholic Church he had left unchanged. 
The six articles provided for the mass and the confessional, 
and forbade the marriage of priests. The people of England 
were now divided on this question of doctrine. In the north- 
ern and western counties they wanted to keep the Catholic 
faith entire, while in the east and south the reformers would 
do away with it all and have a simple service of song, prayers, 
and preaching, in English. 

Besides the quarrel over church reform, there were in- 
creasing difficulties between the farmers and the wealthy land- 
holders about the inclosing of lands and the rise in rents. 
And most serious of all, the decline of farming had made 
food scarce, and many of the poorer classes were in distress. 
Prices were high on this account, and also because the late 
king, to enrich himself, had made the coin of inferior quality. 
Four shillings would not buy so much as one would in the 
time of Henry VII. So many laborers were out of work 
that wages were low even when paid in this debased coin. 

The Vagrant Act was passed in the first year of Edward's 
reign. It provided that any able-bodied man who was per- 
sistently idle should be branded with the letter V, and made 
a slave for two years; if he then refused to work, he should 
be made a slave for life. But in spite of the law the va- 
grants and paupers increased. Besides the farmers and la- 
borers thrown out of work by the inclosing of lands, thou- 
sands of retainers whom the lords had been obliged to dismiss 



1553] EDWARD VI. 175 

were thrown upon the country; and, finally, the monks and 
laborers who had formerly been supported on the estates 
of the church were, by the closing of the monasteries, left 
homeless and idle. The vagrant law could not make men 
work when there was no work to be done. 

An Increase in Criminals came with this lack of work. 
Many of the vagrants became thieves and robbers. The 
roads were beset with highwaymen. " In London," a traveler 
writes, " people are taken up every day by dozens, yet for all 
this they never cease to rob and murder in the streets." The 
severest laws did not check them. It was said that " a man 
who would in France be whipped, would in England be 
hanged. In truth there were two sorts of punishment, to be 
hanged and to be beheaded, and evil-doers gained as much 
by doing little evil as great." These evils continued to trou- 
ble England for many years. 

Progress of the English Reformation. Somerset, who 
was thoroughly in sympathy with the Protestant party, or- 
dered the churches stripped of images and pictures. The 
stained glass windows were replaced with plain ones, the 
altars were pulled down, the walls were whitewashed, and the 
Ten Commandments written on them. The vestments of the 
priests and the furniture of the altars were destroyed. Cram- 
mer and a committee of clergymen compiled the prayer book, 
which took the place of the Latin service. A law, called the 
Act of Uniformity, compelled the use of the prayer book in 
all the churches in England. The clergy were allowed to 
marry. In the last year of E dwarfs reign, the doctrines 
and teachings of the church were expressed in forty-two ar- 
ticles, which were some years later reduced to thirty-nine; 
these thirty-nine articles of belief are still the creed and prac- 
tice of the English, or Anglican, Church, known also* as the 
Episcopal Church. 

King Edward's Schools. The monasteries did much 



176 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1549 

good in providing instruction for the poor, and their loss left 
the children without means of education. To take their 
place, a part of the money that came to the crown through 
their suppression was used in establishing forty grammar 
schools and a number of hospitals in different parts of Eng- 
land. As the young king favored this project, these schools 
have since been known as King Edward's Schools. 

Insurrections. A revolt in Cornwall and Devonshire was 
caused by forcing the English prayer book upon the Catho- 
lic people. One Sunday in the church of a little village, 
when the English service was read for the first time, the 
people compelled the priest to put on his robes and conduct 
the mass in Latin. The revolt spread fast, but the insur- 
gents were quickly put down. 

In Norfolk 16,000 men gathered under the lead of Eobert 
Ket, a tanner. They proceeded to break down the hated 
fences and to kill the fat sheep and deer within. This revolt 
seems to have been provoked by the general poverty and dis- 
tress of the poorer classes. 

In the suppression of these two insurrections, more than 
6,000 people were slain or hanged. 

Somerset and Northumberland. Somerset sympathized 
with the people and was slow in taking 'severe measures to put 
down the Norfolk revolt. His rival in the council was John 
Dudley, afterwards created Duke of Northumberland, who 
now succeeded in driving him out of office. Later Somerset 
was executed on a charge of trying to regain his power. 

Attempt to Change the Succession. Northumberland 
was even more determined than Somerset to wipe out the 
Catholic power in England. The king's health was feeble, 
and under an act of Parliament both his sisters had been 
placed in the line of succession, so that on his death the crown 
would go to the Princess Mary, the daughter of Catherine, 
a determined Catholic, The council had tried in vain to 



1553] MARY I. 177 

make her give up her religion and become Protestant, but 
she steadfastly refused. When Cranmer urged her to ac- 
cept the " Word of God," she replied, " I know not what you 
mean by the Word of God, since what is the Word of God 
now was not so in my father's time." 

After Northumberland came into power he formed a plan 
to pass over the king's half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, and 
give the crown to Lady Jane Grey, who had married his own 
son, Guildford Dudley. Lady Jane was the granddaughter 
of the Princess Mary, sister of Henry VIII. Northumber- 
land persuaded Edward to make a will bequeathing the crown 
to Jane, although he must have known that only the Parlia- 
ment could declare the succession. 

One day in 1553 Lady Jane was informed that Edward 
was dead and that she was to be queen. She was only six- 
teen years of age, beautiful, and remarkable for her learning 
and accomplishments. She cared only for her books and her 
husband, and begged to be left with them. But her father- 
in-law was determined to sacrifice her to his ambitious plans, 
which never had any chance of success. Protestants and 
Catholics united to defeat him, and he had scarcely a dozen 
supporters. The Parliament declared in favor of Mary, and 
the people of London at once gave her their allegiance. Nor- 
thumberland and two others were executed, and Lady Jane 
Grey and her husband were sent to the Tower, there to wait 
until the same fate should overtake them. 

Mary I., 1553-1558. 

The First Woman to Rule England was Mary Tudor. 
She was a plain, sickly woman, somewhat dull, and came to 
the throne at the mature age of thirty-seven. Her youth had 
been blighted and unhappy on account of her mother's unjust 
divorce and consequent disgrace. She was a devout and faith- 
ful Catholic, and believed that her one duty as sovereign 



178 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1553 

was to restore the Catholic form of worship and the rule of 
the Pope, Beyond this she saw little and understood little 
of the needs of her people. She had the Tudor determina- 
tion., but none of the Tudor statesmanship that Henry had 
exhibited. It was a time when it was very difficult to act 
wisely. The people were about evenly divided on the question 
of religion, and the idea that they could be trusted to select 
a religious belief for themselves was then undreamed of. 
The great kings of England, those who had governed most 
successfully, had consulted the wishes of the people; but 
under the Tudors it had become the custom to refer every- 
thing to the will of the sovereign. Mary's first care, there- 
fore, was to have Parliament repeal the laws that gave coun- 
tenance to Protestantism, and to restore the Catholic form 
of worship. Most of the people received it back gladly, 
and, except in some of the larger towns, no complaints were 
heard. Next the married clergymen were made to resign 
their places, and the foreign reformers were banished from 
England. But the monastery lands were left in the hands of 
their new owners. 

Spanish Influence. The Protestant princes of Germany 
had made an alliance with France against Charles Y. and the 
Catholic princes. Both parties now sought the alliance of 
England. The French and Spanish ambassadors were at the 
English court, each striving to gain favor with the new queen. 
Charles's minister proposed that Mary marry Philip, the heir 
to the throne of Spain. The queen saw his portrait and fell 
in love with him, and from that moment she was under the 
influence of the Spanish power. 

Wyatt's Rebellion. But the English had no liking for 
Spain, and still less did they like Philip personally. The 
Commons petitioned the queen to choose some other husband, 
but they received a sharp reproof. Immediately afterwards, 
in the central and southern counties where the Protestants 



1554] 



MARY I. 



179 



were strong, an insurrection gathered for the purpose of de- 
posing Mary and putting her sister, Elizabeth, on the throne. 
Sir Thomas Wyatt was to rouse the men of Kent, while his 
confederates were to join him with troops from other coun- 
ties. But they failed to appear and Wyatt was left alone. 




Queen Mary Signing Death Warrant of Lady Jane Grey. 

For a time it looked as though he would succeed. The Lon- 
don troops sent against him changed sides, and with prompt- 
ness and prudence he might have gained the city. But Mary- 
was roused. She appealed to the London people in a stirring 
speech and threw herself upon their protection. She prom- 



180 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1554 

ised not to marry without the consent of Parliament, The 
next day 25,000 men enlisted, and Wyatt, though he entered 
London and fought till almost deserted, was taken. Lady 
Jane Grey and her husband were now executed, along with 
Wyatt and about one hundred others. An effort was made to 
connect Elizabeth with the plot, but no proof could be found 
against her and she was acquitted. 

The next Parliament consented to Mary's marriage with 
Philip, but did not give him any power in the government. 
The marriage took place in July, 1554. It assured Charles 
that England would not join France against him. But Philip 
did not love his wife, who was much older than himself. 
After a few months' stay in England, he went away, leaving 
her to rule alone. 

Restoration of the Catholic Church. Mary had attained 
one of the great desires of her heart — Philip for a husband. 
She was now to attempt to gain the other — the restoration 
of all England to the rule and religion of the Catholic Church. 
Cardinal Pole, who had been outlawed by Henry VIII. for 
refusing to acknowledge him as the head of the church, now 
returned to England as the Pope's legate. The Pope was 
again recognized as the Supreme Head of the Church. 

This was an age when one's religion was considered part 
of one's politics. Those who opposed the state religion were 
generally the enemies of the government and were treated as 
enemies. So Mary and the Parliament revived the old laws 
of Henry IV. and Henry V. against heretics. 

The penalty for refusing to accept the established religion 
was death, usually by burning. In all nearly three hundred 
persons were put to death. Cranmer, the Archbishop of 
Canterbury and author of the prayer book; Eidley, Bishop 
of London; and Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, were the most 
distinguished victims. 

The persecution of Mary's time was due largely to Philip, 



1558] MARY I. 181 

who was narrow and cruel by nature. " Better not rule at all 
than rule over heretics," was his motto. 

Close of Mary's Reign. In 1557, to please her husband, 
now King Philip II., Mary joined Spain in a war against 
France. The French replied by seizing Calais, the only pos- 
session left to England on the continent. Mary's English 
patriotism was deeply wounded. " When I die/' said she, " you 
will find Calais written on my heart." 

In Mary's eagerness to free England from heresy, she had 
neglected other things. Pirates swarmed along the coasts. 
Fortresses were unrepaired. There was no money in the 
treasury. Commerce had almost ceased on account of wars 
and pirates. The people began to detest Mary and her rule. 
Her husband had deserted her, and the poor queen, long 
troubled by disease, and now prostrated by the loss of Calais, 
died within the year. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Enumerate the good and the bad effects of the suppression of the 

monasteries. 

2. How were the people disposed toward the changes in the church 

made in Edward VI. 's time? 

3. Why did the people oppose the marriage of Mary and Philip? 

4. Why was England badly governed in Edward VI. 's time? In 

Mary's time? 

5. Why were the radical reformers unwise? What proves their folly? 

0. What causes led to the Vagrant Act? Why was it unjust? 
7. In what way did the poor suffer during this period? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Lady Jane Grey. Yonge, Cameos from English History, IV. (see 

index) ; Froude, History of England, Vol. VI., pp. 16-43, 180- 
184. 

2. Edward, the Boy Kjng. Yonge, Cameos from English History, 

IV. (see index) ; Clemens, The Prince and the Pauper. 

3. Persecution under Tudor Sovereigns. E. S. Holt, All for the 

Best. 

4. Philip and Mary, Yonge, Cameos from English History, IV, 



* / '**; 




182 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [155S 

C. Growth of English Power. 
Elizabeth, 15 58- 1603. 

How Elizabeth Ruled England. When Elizabeth came 
to the throne, the Protestant exiles returned, and those who 
were in prison on account of that religion were set free. Mary 

had ruled in order to make the 
English people Catholic. Eliz- 
abeth, who cared little for re- 
ligion, ruled to make the Eng- 
lish nation strong. For this 
reason she has received the 
name of " Good Queen Bess." 
Under her rule schools and 
colleges were encouraged, dis- 
covery and exploration extend- 
ed, manufactures and commerce 
built up, and a naval power es- 
tablished which, before the 
close of her reign, became the 
strongest in the world. Comfortable homes took the place 
of hovels with floors of dirt and beds of straw, and people 
began to live and think like human beings and free men. 

There is much truth in the flattering prophecy made of her 
by Archbishop Cranmer in Shakespeare's play " King Henry 
VIII." : 




Elizabeth. 



" She shall be loved and feared ; her own shall bless her ; 
Her foes shake like a field of beaten corn, 
And hang their heads with sorrow ; good grows with her. 
In her days every man shall eat in safety 
Under his own vine what he plants ; and sing 
The merry songs of peace to all his neighbors." 

Like Henry VII., Elizabeth had gained wisdom from her 
misfortunes. She had quietly watched the troubles of Mary's 



1559] , ELIZABETH 183 

reign, and- had been too prudent to connect herself with them. 
She thought it better to keep her head on her shoulders than 
to take sides in a quarrel that was sure to turn out badly, 
whichever side triumphed. No one knew what her policy 
would be in church matters, although it was known she leaned 
toward the side of the reformers. 

Coronation. " It is the Lord's doing, it is marvelous in 
our eyes," she said, when the death of her sister made her 
Queen of England. London was gorgeous with decoration 
and pageant on the coronation day. As the procession moved 
from the Tower to Westminster, a little child, representing 
Truth, let down a Bible by a silken cord into her carriage. 
The queen kissed the book and thanked the city for the gift, 
saying, " I shall be a most diligent reader thereof." An 
English prayer book, afterwards presented to . her, she laid 
aside with anger. Evidently she did not mean to offend either 
Protestant or Catholic. 

Her Laws Concerning the Church. About half the 
people would have liked to continue to worship as their fathers 
did. A small number wanted to worship as they did in Ed- 
ward's time. A much larger number, who were afterwards 
called Puritans, wanted the government to leave them free 
to worship in their own way. It would not have been safe to 
follow the ideas of any of these parties. So the Parliament 
decided that the queen must be the " Supreme Governor of 
the Kealm" in church matters as well as in other things. 
They changed Cranmer's prayer book so that it was more 
pleasing to the Catholics and less pleasing to the Puritans, 
but on the whole pleased all the people of England fairly 
well. This book had to be used in the service of all the 
churches, and with very slight change is still used in 
the English Church. Those clergymen who would not obey the 
Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity were dismissed, and oth- 
ers appointed. Though both Catholics and Protestants de- 



559 



184 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR , [1559 

clared that the queen was going straight to destruction, this 
moderate policy proved the salvation of the country. 

Before long, however, severe laws were made against Catho- 
lics and other dissenters from the established religion. His- 
torians have called Elizabeth's predecessor " Bloody Mary " 
because she persecuted heretics. But Elizabeth's own hands 
were not spotless. As we shall see, nearly two hundred 
Catholics were put to death in England during her reign. 
Under her, also, the torture was frequently used to force con- 
fessions from the accused, whereas under Mary it had scarcely 
ever been resorted to. 

How the Queen Kept Peace with Foreign Nations. 
Elizabeth, aided by her able ministers, Cecil, Bacon, and 
Walsingham, was skillful in diplomacy; — that is, she could 
get what the nation wanted without fighting for it. She was 
able and energetic like her father, and. could decide promptly 
and act boldly in time of danger. But she put off mak- 
ing up her mind as long as possible, and was ready to 
change it as soon as made up. If a measure she adopted 
turned out badly, she would declare she had never authorized 
it. She would make promises that she never intended to per- 
form, would forsake her friends, lie when it served her pur- 
pose, and could even strike her courtiers and swear if she felt 
so inclined. 

Her plan was to keep her enemies divided. In Scotland 
and France there was the same division into religious factions 
as there had been in England. When the Protestant party 
in those countries was in danger of being subdued, Elizabeth 
would furnish it just enough help to enable it to keep the 
Catholic party busy. At first Spain was friendly, and Eliza- 
beth did not interfere when King Philip II. tried to force 
the Catholic religion upon his Protestant subjects in the 
Netherlands; but later she sent help to them also. As her 
enemies were thus occupied with troubles at home, they were 



1581] 



ELIZABETH 



185 



unable to attack England until the country had grown united 
and strong. 

The Queen's Proposed Marriage. At the beginning of 
her reign, the Parliament petitioned the queen to choose a 
husband, and she promised to clo so when it should be for the 
advantage of the country. But she never could make up her 
mind which suitor to choose. Philip II. proposed first, hop- 
ing by marrying Elizabeth to keep England on the side of 

Spain. His offer was de- 
clined, but she considered 
other candidates that he pro- 
posed. In 1581, she gave the 
people to understand that she 
would marry the Duke of An- 
jou in order to unite France, 
England, and the Nether- 
lands against Spain. It is 
not likely she intended to 
marry the duke, but perhaps 
she wanted to find out what 
her people thought about a 
French marriage. A young 
lawyer, named Stubbs, wrote 
a pamphlet ridiculing the 
marriage in a manner more insolent than polite. His book 
was destroyed and his right hand cut off. But he waved his 
hat with his left, and cried, " God save Queen Elizabeth ! " 

Her great desire was to keep England at peace. When her 
councilors talked in a warlike way, she would bring her fist 
down on the table, exclaiming, " No war ! my Lords, no war ! " 
If her marriage had been necessary to the peace and safety of 
England, Elizabeth might have married, but as long as it was 
not, she preferred many suitors to one husband, and delighted 
in hearing their flattery, and in keeping them in suspense. 




Philip II. 



186 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1547 

In order to understand the events of Elizabeth's reign we 
must know something of the struggle over religion that was 
going on in the neighboring countries. 

John Knox in Scotland. A struggle between Scottish 
Catholics and reformers had been in progress during the reigns 
of Edward VI. and Mary. Mary of Guise, mother of Mary 
Stuart, ruled the country as regent, and tried to keep the peo- 
ple faithful to the Catholic Church. But in Scotland the kings 
never had so much power as in England, and she was unable 
to restrain the reformers. The burning of Protestant preach- 
ers brought on an insurrection. 

The most noted of the Scotch reformers was John Knox, a 
native of Glasgow. For his part in the insurrection he was 
sent to the French galleys, but he escaped and became a pupil 
of a great French reformer, John Calvin, at Geneva. In 
1559 he returned to Scotland. He was a man of ready speech, 
terribly in earnest, and the Scotch people listened to him as 
they had never listened to any man before. He preached a 
fierce sermon at Perth on idolatry, and the people broke into 
the churches and cathedrals and stripped them of the beautiful 
pictures, images, and altars with which they were furnished. 
The movement spread through the country, and the people 
rose in arms. They besieged the regent and deposed her. 
When French soldiers were brought in to subdue them, they 
called on Elizabeth for help. Thus they were found asking 
their old enemy, England, to help drive out their old friend, 
France. Elizabeth helped them drive out the French, on the 
condition that they should be obedient to their queen, Mary 
Stuart. 

Mary Queen of Scots. Mary's husband, King Francis 
II. of France, had died soon after his coronation, and she 
was now to return to Scotland to rule as queen. She felt 
very sad to leave the gay and beautiful Paris, where she had 
grown up and married. " Farewell ! dear France ! " she cried, 



47 



1567] ELIZABETH 187 

as the ship sailed out into the mists of the North Sea, " I 
shall never see thee more." It was indeed her last farewell to 
France. To Elizabeth, her coming brought no end of trou- 
ble, for Mary and the Catholic party claimed that the mar- 
riage of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn was not lawful, and 
that Elizabeth had no right to her throne. Mary, being the 
granddaughter of Henry VIII/s sister Margaret, was, ac- 
cording to this claim, the lawful Queen of England. Eliza- 
beth did not intend to allow Mary to reach Scotland till she 
should sign the treaty which had been made with the Scotch 
reformers, acknowledging Elizabeth's right to the English 
throne; but Mary refused to sign, and succeeded in reaching 
Scotland in safety. 

Mary began her reign well, and made many of the rough 
Scots her friends. It was her plan, after getting firm control 
of affairs at home, to call upon Spain and France to join her 
in a war on England. But she soon got into difficulties. She 
married her cousin, Lord Darnley, who was such a foolish and 
contemptible man that she soon came to despise him. Her 
friendship for her foreign secretary, Eizzio, made Darnley 
angry, and one day he and some friends of his burst into 
Mary's presence, and stabbed Eizzio to death before her eyes. 
After this a rough Scotch lord, named Bothwell, became 
her chief adviser. One night the house in which Darnley 
was sleeping was blown into the air by a blast of gunpowder. 
He was not hurt by the explosion, but while running away 
was met by armed men and murdered. Bothwell and Mary 
were afterwards married. 

The Scotch people would have her queen no longer. They 
captured her and shut her up in Loch Leven Castle. They 
made her young son, James VI., king, and chose her half- 
brother, Murray, to rule until he grew up. But Mary soon 
escaped from her prison and fled to England, begging Eliza- 
beth to help her get back her throne. But some people ac- 



188 



THE HOUSE OF TUDOR 



[1567 





Capture of Mary Stuart by the Scots. 



cused her, as well as Bothwell, of Darnley's murder. Eliza- 
beth therefore refused to help her, and gave her to an English 
noble to keep as a prisoner. After being moved from one 
place to another, she was at last confined in Fotheringay 
Castle. 

The Enmity of Spain. Philip II. ruled over the Nether- 
lands, Spain, Italy, and many American colonies. He was 
determined to make all men think alike on matters of religion. 
From the mines of South America, he received great treasures 
of gold and silver, which he thought would enable him to 
carry out his plan of subduing the Protestants in Europe. He 



1586] ELIZABETH 189 

would first conquer the Netherlands, then France, and finally 
England. 

He began with the Netherlands. These provinces had long 
been the richest in Europe. They were inhabited by manu- 
facturers and merchants, and had long been in the habit of 
governing themselves. The attempt to force them back into 
the old faith provoked a fierce and determined resistance 
which all Philip's power could not crush. Their heroic leader, 
William of Orange, was killed by a paid assassin of Philip, 
but the cause went on many years till the Dutch provinces 
became a free republic. 

In France the two sects had been waging a bloody civil 
war. Philip had joined the Catholic party there to keep the 
French Protestants, or Huguenots, as they were called, from 
helping the Dutch. This forced Elizabeth to send aid to 
Holland; for if Philip should conquer the Dutch, he would 
join France in attacking England, and attempt to put Mary 
on the throne. An army was sent under the Earl of Leices- 
ter. He was a vain and haughty man, with no- ability, and 
accomplished little. In the attack on Zutphen, his gallant 
nephew, Sir Philip Sidney, fell, the noblest gentleman of 
England. He was author, statesman, and scholar. His noble 
character is exhibited in the last action of his life. When 
he was lying wounded upon the battlefield, a cup of water 
was offered him; but seeing another suffering soldier near 
him, he said, " Take it ; thy necessity is greater than mine." 

Rise of the English Navy. But England had begun an 
attack on Philip which threatened to ruin his nearly exhausted 
treasury. English sailors were beginning to cruise in the 
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico and seize the Spanish 
treasure ships from America. 

Captain John Hawkins began the African slave trade in 
1562. He carried the slaves to the West Indies, where he ex- 
changed them for sugar, ginger, pearls, and hides, which found 

NlVER 12, 



190 



THE HOUSE OF TUDOR 



[1564 



a ready sale in Europe. The queen herself invested in his 
second voyage and shared the profits. 

Francis Drake took a shorter road to wealth. With five 
ships he set sail for South America in 1577. He coasted 
southward, and passed through the Strait of Magellan. Off 
Chile, he took a Spanish treasure ship, and further north he 
overhauled the great treasure galleon which was sent annually 
to Spain. Three cannon shot brought down her mast, and 




Knighting Drake. 

" Golden Hind." 



her cargo was taken aboard the " Golden Hind." Thirteen 
chests of plate, eighty pounds of gold, and twenty-six tons of 
silver were the booty of the victor. 

Sailing northward, he landed on the California coast, nam- 
ing it " New Albion." To avoid the Spanish fleet waiting for 
him at the strait, he struck westward across the Pacific, re- 
turning to England in 1580 by way of the Cape of Good 
Hope. He was thus the first Englishman to make the cir- 



15S7] 



ELIZABETH 



191 




cuit of the globe. England went wild with delight. Drake 

was knighted. A banquet was served to the queen on board 

his ship, and it became a sort of 

club-home for naval men. Years 

afterwards, when it was broken up, 

a chair was made from some of the 

timber and given to Oxford Uni- 
versity. 

During the next few years Drake 

was busy plundering the Spanish 

colonies. In 1587 he entered the 

harbor of Cadiz and scuttled fifty 

of Philip's ships which were being 

fitted out to attack England. The 

town was plundered and burned, chaik mIde from Dbake's 

He hurried back to England, saying Ship - 

he had " singed Philip's beard/' as he had vowed to do when 

he set out. 

Execution of Mary. Philip had been preparing to invade 
England, at first in behalf of Mary, but now in his own behalf. 
Mary had been a continual source of trouble. The Duke of 
Norfolk and other nobles had attempted to release her and 
put her on the English throne. The rising had been put down 
with great severity ; Norfolk was put in the Tower, and later 
was sent to the block. 

The Society of Jesus, founded in 1534 for the exten- 
sion of the Catholic faith, now began to send its priests into 
England. But severe laws were made against the Jesuits. It 
was made high treason to receive any one into the Catholic 
Church or to absolve the queen's subjects from their oath of 
allegiance. A fine of twenty pounds a month was laid on any 
one who would not attend the established church. As many 
as two hundred of the Jesuits were imprisoned or put to 
death. 



192 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [158(3 

The severe laws against the Catholics had driven them to 
desperation. Anthony Babington and several young men who 
were connected with Elizabeth's own court agreed to assas- 
sinate her. The Duke of Parma, Philip's chief general, was 
to invade England, marry the Queen of Scots, and rule the 
country as the vassal of Spain. Walsingham's spies managed 
to get the confidence of the conspirators and made copies of 
the letters passing between Mary and them. When Walsing- 
ham had obtained evidence that she was a party to the plot, 
the conspirators were all seized and put to death. Mary was 
saved for a time, but it was believed that Elizabeth's life 
would never be safe while Mary was alive. She was therefore 
tried and beheaded in Fotheringay Castle, February 8, 1587. 

The Great Armada. Drake's attack on the Spanish at 
Cadiz delayed Philip's preparation for a year; but in May, 
1588, he was ready to put to sea. His fleet, "the most 
fortunate and invincible Armada," as he called it, consisted of 
132 ships, manned by 10,000 sailors and slaves, and carrying 
22,000 soldiers. The Duke of Parma was to join him with 
17,000 soldiers from the Netherlands. Elizabeth could not 
believe that England was seriously threatened, and delayed 
preparations till the last moment, hoping yet to make peace. 
But the English people of both creeds united heartily in the 
defense of the country, for they disliked Philip, who now 
claimed to be the lawful heir to the throne of England, since 
he was descended from John of Gaunt. 

The English navy contained only thirty-four ships and six 
thousand men, but by the efforts of the merchants and the 
seaport towns, it was immensely increased. London was 
asked to furnish fifteen ships, but sent word to the queen to 
please " accept thirty." The whole land responded with equal 
generosity, and a formidable fleet, under Admiral Lord How- 
ard, was ready to attack the Armada when it came up the 
Channel in July, 1588. The Spanish vessels were larger 



158S] 



ELIZABETH 



193 



than the English, but the English had more cannon. The 
English could therefore inflict much damage while themselves 
keeping out of range of the Spanish musketry. When one 
of the galleons was crippled and left behind the fleet, the Eng- 
lish ships would surround and capture it — " plucking off the 
feathers/' they called it. The Spanish vessels, on account 
of their clumsy build, could not readily assist one another, 
while the light and swift English ships could destroy an 
enemy and escape without damage. 




Drake Receiving the Surrender of a Spanish Ship. 



The Armada came to anchor off Calais to await the Duke of 
Parma and his veterans. Elizabeth had assembled her troops 
at Tilbury. Clad in armor and mounted on a white horse, 
she rode among them and made a speech which stirred their 
loyalty. ec Let tyrants fear ; " she said, " my strength and 
safety are in the loyal hearts of my people. I know I am 
a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart of a King of 
England." 



194 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1588 

But the soldiers were not needed. Parma was blockaded by 
a Dutch fleet and could not embark. The English sent fire 
ships among the Spanish vessels which lay at anchor off Calais. 
In an effort to escape, they cut their cables and put to sea in 
confusion. The English fleet then attacked, and sank or cap- 
tured sixteen ships. A tempest began to blow from the south- 
east. The Spanish ships were driven away from the Nether- 
lands and hopelessly scattered, while the English rode out the 
storm without the loss of a ship. Some of the Spanish vessels 
were wrecked on the coast of Norway, others on the islands 
around Scotland, till finally out of the "Invincible Armada" 
only fifty-three ships and 10,000 men returned to Spain. 
The Spanish king had done his worst and had failed. The sea 
power of Spain steadily declined, and she sank from the first 
rank of nations, while England rose to the first place as a 
naval, commercial, and colonizing nation. 

Church Troubles. During the rest of the reign the 
Catholic dissenters were treated with the greatest severity. 
Priests and laymen who would not recant were banished, and 
about fifty, including two women, suffered death. The Court 
of High Commission was established to settle questions re- 
lating to the church. It tried and punished the Puritans 
harshly. By this time the most of the Catholics had entered 
the established church; and, as they wanted to make it con- 
form as nearly as possible to their old form of worship, the 
High Church party grew up, which Elizabeth herself favored, 
and which afterwards, by its severity, drove the Puritans into 
rebellion. The severe measures of the High Commission court 
were caused by the rise of new sects. Besides the Puritans, 
who wished, as they said, to " purify " the church of Catholic 
ceremonies, another sect arose, called Brownists, from the 
name of their leader, and afterwards known as Separatists. 
This denomination held that each church congregation ought 
to have the right to govern itself without interference of any 



1596] ELIZABETH 195 

kind. They were especially hateful to Elizabeth, and six were 
put to death. 

The sect of Presbyterians, or Calvinists, established by 
John Knox in Scotland, soon spread to England. They 
wished to govern the church by sending representatives 
from each congregation to an assembly which should have 
nothing to do with the political government. These ideas of 
church government were too new and strange to receive much 
favor in the time of Elizabeth. 

War against Spain Continued. England now turned 
invader, and for the rest of Elizabeth's reign Spain was 
mercilessly plundered. Her colonies were raided, towns 
sacked, and countless wealth carried away to England. Drake 
died in 1596 while on one of his cruises against the Span- 
iards, and Hawkins, who was over sixty, died about the same 
time. 

Sir Richard Grenville. In these wars many a valiant 
deed was done. One of the most noted is that of Richard 
Grenville. He and Lord Howard were with a fleet looking 
for Spanish treasure ships near the Azores, when they were 
surprised by a fleet of fifty-three Spanish ships of war. All 
escaped but Grenville, who refused to fly, but with one ship 
proceeded to fight his way through the enemy's fleet. For 
fifteen hours he held out, until his ship was barely afloat, his 
powder gone, forty men killed, and himself desperately 
wounded. He then ordered his men to sink the ship so that 
it should not fall into the enemy's hands. Tennyson tells 
the story in his ballad " The Eevenge " : 

" And the sun went down, and the stars came out far over the sum- 
mer sea, 
But never for a moment ceased the fight of the one and the fifty- 
three. 
Ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-built galleons came, 
Ship after ship, the whole night long, with her battle-thunder and 
flame ; 



196 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1591 

Ship after ship, the whole night long, drew back with her dead and 

her shame. 
For some were sunk, and many were shattered, and so could fight 

us no more ; 
God of battles! was ever a battle like this in the world before? " 

Grenville was carried on board one of the enemy's ships 
to die, and the Spaniards did honor to his valor. His last 
words were fitting to the manner of his death : " Here die 
I, Eichard Grenville, with a joyful and quiet mind; for I 
have ended my life as a good soldier ought, who has fought 
for his country and his queen, for his honor and his re- 
ligion." 

' These wars were brought to a close in 1596 by an attack 
on Cadiz. Lord Howard with one hundred and fifty ships 
and Essex with a land force joined in an assault on the 
town. The shipping in the harbor was completely destroyed 
and the city plundered, but no one was needlessly slaugh- 
tered. The dread of Spain was over. 

Conquest of Ireland. The English had never been able 
to subdue permanently more than a small strip of the Irish 
coast around Dublin. In the latter part of Elizabeth's reign, 
the young Earl of Essex, a favorite of the queen, was sent to 
Ireland to put down a rising in Ulster begun by the Irish 
Earl of Tyrone, who had invited in the Spanish to aid him. 
Essex wasted his time, his army melted away, and nothing 
was done against Tyrone. He behaved as though he intended 
to join the rebels against England. On his return, being 
coldly received, he attempted to stir up a rebellion and get 
control of the queen's council. Eor this he was tried and be- 
headed. Elizabeth, who loved him as though he were a son, 
never recovered from the sorrow she felt at his fall. Lord 
Mountj oy succeeded him in the Irish command and reduced 
the island to English rule ; but by such severe methods that the 
queen said they "left nothing but ashes and corpses to rule 
over." 



1G01] ELIZABETH 197 

The Repeal of Monopolies. Elizabeth, as much as pos- 
sible, avoided taxing the people. One way she had of raising 
money was by the sale of monopolies. For example, the 
Earl of Essex was the only man in England allowed to sell 
sweet wines. For this privilege he paid a certain sum to 
the queen. But people who wanted to buy sweet wine, or 
any other article protected by a monopoly, had to pay more 
for it. So many monopolies were granted that they became 
a great burden, and in 1601 the last parliament called by 
Elizabeth petitioned her to make an end of them. She 
abolished the worst ones at once, when she saw the peo|)le de- 
sired it. In doing so she made her last speech to the English 
people, closing with these words : " Though you have had, 
and may have, many princes more mighty and wise sitting in 
this seat, yet you never had nor will have any that will be 
more careful and loving." 

Manufactures. We have seen how cloth manufacturing 
was begun in the time of Edward III., by inviting Flemish 
spinners and weavers to come to England to teach their 
trades to English apprentices. During the bloody wars of 
Philip II. in the Netherlands many more came. In one 
year alone the number was 30,000. Elizabeth welcomed them, 
because skillful workmen make a country rich. She gave 
them lands in Sandwich and Norwich (p. 7), on the con- 
dition that every one of them should employ at least one 
English apprentice. It soon came about that instead of 
England sending wool to Flanders and buying it back in 
the form of cloth, the cloth was made in England and 
sold to the merchants in Flanders, who again sold it to 
merchants in the rest of Europe. Twice a year the English 
merchants fitted out a fleet of fifty or sixty ships, and as 
much as 100,000 pieces of woolen and silk were sold every 
year. 

The Coinage. In order to carry on trade it is necessary 



198 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1562 

to have good money, that is, coin that is worth the amount 
stamped upon it, so that people will take it freely in exchange 
for goods. Much of the coin had been debased by melting 
cheaper metals with the gold and silver, so that a coin that said 
one shilling on its face was worth only one third of a shilling. 
Elizabeth caused all this poor money to be recoined to make 
it worth its face value. 

The Royal Exchange. At first the merchants of Lon- 
don were obliged to do their buying and selling on the side- 
walks, where they were exposed to all kinds of weather. The 
Hansa merchants had long before built a special place, the 
Steelyard, where they conducted their business. In 1560 
Sir Thomas G-resham, a wealthy English merchant, who had 
lived in' Flanders and had seen the fine stores of the traders 
there, built on Lombard Street, the main business thorough- 
fare, a fine brick structure surrounding a square. Around 
this square shops were arranged with vaults for safely storing 
merchandise. Elizabeth was so pleased with Gresham's build- 
ing that she named it " The Eoyal Exchange." 

Trade with Russia. In 1553 Eichard Chancellor had 
tried to find a passage to India by sailing eastward through 
the Arctic Ocean. He went as far as Archangel, and from 
there journeyed overland in a sledge, 1,500 miles, to Moscow, 
the capital of Eussia, or Muscovy, as that country was 
then called. Here he was gladly received by the emperor, 
who gave him letters to Queen Mary. These Chancellor de- 
livered to her, along with an account of the country, which 
was very productive of grain, hemp, furs, and ivory. Four 
years later the emperor sent an ambassador to England to 
see about opening trade. The merchants dressed themselves 
in their finest silks and velvets, and hung chains of gold about 
their necks, when they went in procession to receive him. 
This they did to show their elegance and wealth and so make 
the Eussians eager to trade with them. They also gave the 



1G00] TRADE AND TRAVEL 199 

ambassador a fine horse richly caparisoned, with a splendid 
saddle, and cloths of velvet, trimmed with gold lace, and 
took him fox hunting with three hundred knights and gen- 
tlemen. When he returned the merchants sent with him 
four " good and well-trimmed ships." And thus trade with 
Eussia began. 

Other Voyages were made in the reigns of Mary and 
Elizabeth along the coast of Africa, and trade was begun 
with the Portuguese settlements there. India was first seen 
by Englishmen when Drake made his famous voyage around 
the world. Thomas Cavendish followed him in 1586, in the 
second English ship to sail around the globe. As early as 
1576 Martin Frobisher had tried to reach India by "the 
northwest passage," north of North America. In two later 
voyages he repeated the attempt, but could make his way 
only little further than Hudson Strait (map, p. 400). 

The first English colony planted in America was founded 
on Roanoke Island by Sir Walter Ealeigh, one of the courtiers 
of Elizabeth; though it failed, the interest it aroused led to 
later successes, as we shall see in the next reign. 

English Travelers had found the way eastward to India 
as well as westward to America. Ealph Fitch traveled over- 
land as far as Bengal, and returning in 1591, after an absence 
of eight years, wrote a full account of his experiences. 

Eaymond and Lancaster in 1591 doubled the Cape of Good 
Hope, visited Ceylon, Malacca, China, and Japan, and re- 
turning by a southwestern course saw many of the East 
Indies. In 1600, the East India Company was chartered for 
trade with that part of the world. 

Anthony Jenkinson was a London trader who journeyed 
through Eussia, visited the regions about the Black and Cas- 
pian seas, and traveled into parts of Siberia, Persia, and Asia 
Minor. 

In 1580 the English obtained from the Turks a "charter 



200 



THE HOUSE OF TUDOR 



[1580 



of liberties," granting them the privilege to trade in the east- 
ern Mediterranean, or the " Levant," as it is called. 

Thus we see English commerce and exploration branching 
out in every direction: northeast to Eussia;. westward to 
America; southeast to the continent of Europe and the 
Levant ; eastward to India, China, and Japan ; and south along 
the coast of Africa. In the next century, the seventeenth, 
colonies are planted and the foundation of the British Empire 
begun. 

English Literature of the Time of Elizabeth. The 
greatest name among the many authors of Elizabeth's time 

is William Shakespeare. He 
wrote dramas which have 
never been equaled, and are 
still played in our theaters. 
He was himself an actor and 
wrote his plays for his own 
theater in London, the 
" Globe." 

The greatest poet after 
Shakespeare was Edmund 
Spenser. His great poem, 
the " Faery Queen," is com- 
Shakespeake. posed of twelve tales of 

knightly adventure. The hero is Prince Arthur, and in 
the beautiful lady for whose hand the knights are striving 
we may see the poet's flattery of Elizabeth. Sir Philip 
Sidney, the "warbler of poetic prose," as Cowper calls him, 
wrote a romance called "Arcadia." Ealeigh, in the next 
reign, wrote a history of the world. More than a hundred 
good writers who lived in Elizabeth's time might be men- 
tioned. In no other period shall we find such a brilliant com- 
pany of dramatists and poets. 

Francis Bacon was the most distinguished prose writer. 




1603] LITERATURE 201 

He was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, one of the queen's 
officers. Once the queen asked him his age. " I am two years 
younger than your Majesty's happy reign/' he replied. His 
" Essays " are famous. He was the first man to try careful 
experiments to find out the truth of things. He was the 
founder of what we call " experimental science." He wrote 
a series of important books, to which he gave the long name, 
"The Great Institution of True Philosophy." All these 
writings were in Latin, which was still the language of 
learned men. The queen herself was a famous scholar and 
could make speeches in both Latin and Greek. Bacon died 
(1G26) as the result of one of his experiments. Once when 
he was riding in his carriage during a snowstorm, it occurred 
to him that snow might be used instead of salt in preserving 
flesh. He stopped at a farmhouse and bought a fowl to try 
an experiment. He caught cold from the exposure and died 
from the fever which followed it. 

Life of the People. The people of England lived in 
better houses, wore better clothing, and ate better food in Eliz- 
abeth's reign than at any previous time in English history. 
The houses were floored and wainscoted. Glass windows took 
the place of open latticework. Spoons and knives were used, 
and, finally, forks, as one writer says, " to the great saving of 
napkins." 

The small farmer, or yeoman, was protected by law, and 
thus the evil of " inclosing " land was diminished. Books 
on farming and gardening were written, and the people 
learned how to raise vegetables and fruits. 

Hunting, hawking, and bull and bear baiting were favorite 
amusements. There were many holidays, when the country 
people gathered in the nearest village for shooting, wrestling, 
football, and quoits. Then there was dancing, masquerading, 
pantomimes, games, cockfights, and feasts. On May Day, 
a pole was " set up and dancing followed." Whitsunday was 



202 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR [1603 

celebrated with much merriment and games. Christenings, 
betrothals, weddings, and even funerals were made the occa- 
sion of much feasting. It was certainly a " merrie England " 
in the times of Queen " Bess." 

In 1603, in the seventieth year of her age, and the forty-fifth 
of her reign, the good queen passed away. On her deathbed 
she expressed her wish that her " cousin of Scotland," James 
VI., should be her successor. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Show the wisdom of Elizabeth's moderate policy in religious 

matters. Describe her foreign policy. 

2. What led to the voyages and commercial enterprise of Elizabeth's 

reign? What important results followed? 

3. How did Mary Stuart hope to obtain the English crown? What 

was her claim to it? 

4. Why did the great empire of Spain yield before the power of 

England? Compare the navies of the two countries at the 
time of the Armada. 

5. Why did the English people consider the reign of Elizabeth the 

most glorious in their history? Is it still so considered? 

0. Compare Elizabeth with Philip II. of Spain as a ruler. 

7. To what important results has Bacon's philosophy led? 

8. What can you say of the literature of Elizabeth's time? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Great Armada. Gomme, Kings' Story Book, Ch. IV. ; 

Creighton, Age of Elizaoeth, Ch. II. ; Macaulay's poem, The 
Armada. 

2. Drake's Great Voyage. Henty, Under Drake's Flag; Frothing- 

ham, Sea Fighters. 

3. Elizabeth at Kenilworth. Scott, Kenilworth, pp. 339-346. 

4. Captivity and Death of Mary Stuart. Kendall, Source Book, 

pp. 164-178; Rolfe, Tales from Scottish History, pp. 92-120. 

5. The Revenge. Tennyson's poem, The Revenge; Colby, Source 

Book, pp. 174-177. 



VIII. THE STUAKT KINGS 1 AND CROMWELL. 

A. The First King by "Divine Right." 
James I., 1603-1625. 

The First Stuart King of England was summoned by a 
swift messenger, who took the news of Elizabeth's death to 
Edinburgh. A few days later, James VI. of Scotland re- 
ceived a formal letter from the council announcing that he had 
been proclaimed King James I. of England. There was no 
one who could safely dispute his claim. The people wished 
to end the wars between the two countries, and as James was 
a Presbyterian, he was welcome to the growing number of 
Puritans. 

The king consumed thirty-two days in traveling to Lon- 
don. He stopped frequently to hunt and feast with his 
new subjects, and to make their acquaintance. His majesty 
was very awkward on his feet, and still more so in the 
saddle. In spite of the efforts of his attendants, he once 
rolled off his horse, but Robert Cecil, his chancellor, courteous- 

iTHE HOUSE OF STUART. 
James I. (1603-1625) (p. 156) 



Charles I. (1625-1649) Elizabeth, m. Frederick 

Elector of the Palatinate 



Charles II. Mary, m. James II. Sophia, m. the Elector 

(1660-1685) William II. I (1685-1688) | of Hanover 

of Orange I George I. (p. 284) 

William III. of Orange, m. Mary Anne James Edward, 

afterward (1689-1694) (1702-1714) the Old Pretender 

William III. of England I 

(1689-170 9 ) Charles, the Young Pretender 

203 



204 THE STUART KINGS [1603 

ly remarked that " any great and extreme rider " like his 
Majesty was liable to such an accident. To accustom the 
kingly arm to the use of his new power, he knighted some- 
thing over two hundred gentlemen during his " progress," 
and condemned a pickpocket to death. " I hear our new 
king," a f anious Englishman wrote to a friend, " hath hanged 
one man without a trial. If the wind bloweth thus, why may 
not a man be tried before he hath offended ? " 

The Stuart Notion of the Rights of Kings. James I. 
brought into England a new idea as to the power of a king. 
The English people held that a king could not act contrary 
to the laws of the country; but James believed that he was 
above the law and could do anything he pleased. " Do I 
not make the judges and the bishops ? " he said. i£ Then I 
may make what I like law and gospel." His favorite expres- 
sion was, " God makes the king, the king makes the law." 
This theory that a king derives his power directly from God is 
sometimes called " the divine right of kings." It was a new 
idea in England, where the Parliament was thought to " make 
the king," and, with the king, to make the law ; and it was an 
unfortunate idea for the Stuart house, for in the end it 
cost one of them his head, and another one his throne. 

In Scotland the Presbyterians and the powerful nobles had 
given James little power and little money. Indeed, Cecil 
had to send him enough to pay his expenses to London. In 
England, however, he expected to have the same nearly abso- 
lute power that Henry VIII. and Elizabeth had had. During 
the reign of these two able sovereigns, the power of the people 
had slumbered. They had their way, but with the approval 
of the people. When James attempted to have his way 
without the approval of the people, trouble began. 

The Appearance and Character of James were in pitiful 
contrast with the stern command of Henry, or the stately 
dignity of Elizabeth. The people were disgusted with his 



1604] JAMES I. 205 

undignified appearance and behavior. He rolled and strad- 
dled in his gait, as though his legs were too weak to carry his 
body; and his expressionless eyes rolled about and stared va- 
cantly at nothing. He seldom washed himself, his clothing 
was neglected and dirty, and his whole appearance ungainly 
and slovenly. He was in constant fear of assassination, and 
wore a thickly wadded, dagger-proof coat. He lurked cau- 
tiously behind his courtiers when any strange visitors were 
about. 

The king had been carefully educated and was fond of 
displaying his learning. In his councils, he loved to do the 
talking, especially concerning church matters, when he 
would speak in Latin or Greek to show off his learning. But 
though he knew many things, he was lacking in good sense. 
The French ambassador at the English court called him the 
" wisest fool in Europe." 

James and the English Church. While James was on 
his way .to London, a petition signed by a thousand Puritan 
clergymen was given to him, begging that the laws against 
dissenters might be repealed. They did not want to wear 
a robe when they conducted the church service, and they 
wished to be allowed to preach sermons of their own. They 
did not like to make the sign of the cross when children 
were baptized, or to use a ring -in the marriage ceremony. 

So James called a great conference of Puritans and bishops 
at Hampton Court, to consider what should be done. He 
may have had an honest desire to hear their complaints ; but 
he became impatient and angry when the Puritans differed 
with him on any point. He made a long speech telling them 
his views in regard to the church. He used big words and 
talked Latin. The English bishops fell on their knees and 
thanked God for giving them such a wise king, and declared 
that he was inspired by the Holy Spirit. James was delighted 
with their praise, and did not see that they were flattering 

NlVER 13. 



206 



THE STUART KINGS 



[1604 



him for their own purposes. Their conduct was quite dif- 
ferent from that of the followers of Knox in Scotland, one 
of whom had called him a " witless fool " to his face. 

Deserting the Presbyterians, he gave his support to the 
bishops, and he announced afterward that if the dissenters 
did not conform to the established church he would "harry 
them out of the kingdom." He broke up the conference and 
imprisoned ten of those who had signed the petition. 

He first suspended and then revived a law of Elizabeth fin- 
ing Catholics 20 pounds a month if they did not attend the 
English Church. The fine was so heavy that many were 
ruined. 

The Gunpowder Plot. Eobert Catesby, a Catholic, 
formed a plan to blow up the house of Parliament and get rid 
of King, Lords, and Commons at one blow. With Guy 
Fawkes and others he hired a coal cellar under the Parliament 
house and placed in it thirty-four barrels of gunpowder, which 
were covered with fuel to conceal them. Horses were ready, 
and a ship to take the conspirators out of the country in case 
of need. But just before Parliament was to meet, one of the 
conspirators wrote to warn his brother-in-law to stay away 

from the meeting, for, he 
said, " this Parliament 
shall receive a terrible 
blow, and shall not see 
who hurt them." The let- 
ter was put into the hands 
of Cecil and the king, and 
its meaning was unraveled. 
Soldiers searched the 
Guy Fawkes's Lantern. ce U ar an a seized Fawkes. 

Other plotters took arms, but were pursued and killed or 
captured. The prisoners were executed. Eawkes was first 
examined by the king, who asked how he could have the heart 




1G21 1 JAMES I. 207 

to kill the king and other innocent people. " Desperate dis- 
eases require desperate remedies," was the reply. To a little 
Scotch favorite who asked why he had got so much powder 
together, Pawkes answered that he wanted to blow all Scotch- 
men as far as Scotland. Though racked and tortured, he re- 
fused to tell the names of his fellow-plotters. 

Trouble with Parliament. When the King of England 
wishes to consult the people, he orders an election. The 
people of each city and county then elect representatives. If 
there is a disputed election, the House of Commons has the 
right to decide which man is legally chosen. King James 
tried to take away this privilege and decide the election him- 
self, but the House insisted on its rights. He also quarreled 
with Parliament about other things, and Parliament did not 
grant him the new taxes he asked for. 

In a later Parliament (1621), when he asked for a grant of 
money, the Commons refused until the king should remove 
certain grievances. He had been collecting a large amount of 
duties on the imports and exports of the country without the 
consent of Parliament. He had been trying law cases in his 
Court of High Commission, which ought to have been tried 
in the ordinary courts. His judges, too, were receiving 
bribes for deciding cases. The Commons, however, com- 
plained especially that the king had granted many monop- 
olies (p. 197). The king abolished the monopolies, and 
Parliament impeached Lord Francis Bacon, the chancellor, 
for bribery, fined him, and put him out of office. 

James wanted Parliament to think that the power they 
had was a gift from the crown; but they informed him 
that " their privileges were theirs by right of birth as English- 
men, and that all matters of public interest were their busi- 
ness." He was so angry at their boldness that he dissolved 
Parliament at once, and had six of them put into prison. 
Since he could not get them to grant money without giving 



208 THE STUART KINGS [1612 

up his " divine right," he continued to get it by unlawful 
means. 

The King's Favorites. Eobert Cecil, the chief adviser of 
the king, died in 1612„ The king then chose for his ad- 
viser a handsome young man named Eobert Carr. He 
made him an earl, and a Knight of the Garter. But Carr 
was soon accused of a murder and condemned to death; 
though James pardoned him, he was banished from court. 
George Villiers, another adventurer, who had begun as the 
king's cupbearer, now took Carr's place. James heaped 
wealth and honors upon him, and made him the chief man 
in the kingdom. If these favorites had been worthy and 
able men, no one would have complained, but the only claim 
they had to consideration was their good looks. Elizabeth 
had chosen the wisest in England for her council, but James 
chose worthless men. 

Relations with Spain. At the beginning of his reign 
James made peace with Spain. He thought that by keeping 
on good terms with both Catholic and Protestant countries 
he could prevent the religious wars that were threatening 
to break out. But in spite of his notion of his own impor- 
tance, the king really counted for little in the affairs of 
Europe. Contrary to the wish of his people, he wanted his 
son Charles to marry the Infanta, or Spanish princess, Maria, 
and thus strengthen his friendship with Spain. His daughter 
Elizabeth had already been married to Frederick, Elector of 
the Palatinate, one of the Protestant princes of Germany. 
When Frederick became engaged in war, the Spanish ambas- 
sador to England encouraged James in the idea, of marrying 
Charles to the Infanta Maria. James feared to help his son- 
in-law Frederick, lest he should lose the large dowry which 
would come with the Spanish princess. But the marriage 
did not take place. The shrewd Spanish minister was leading 
James on just to keep him out of affairs in Germany. 



1623] JAMES I. • 209 

Prince diaries and George Villiers, who was soon made 
Duke of Buckingham, disguised themselves and went to Spain 
to hurry along the wooing. But the coarse familiarity of 
the prince and his followers gave a great shock to the dignified 
Spanish courtiers. Buckingham, especially, gave great of- 
fense by his rude conduct and vulgar language. Charles was 
not allowed to see the princess alone, so one day he jumped 
over a high wall into a garden where she was. But the lady 
only screamed and ran away into the house. An old noble 
who attended her fell on his knees before Charles, and begged 
him to leave the place at once, as the king would surely cut off 
his head if he suffered any man to speak to the princess. 
After a long stay " Steenie " and " Baby Charles," as James 
called his favorite and his son, returned home, and the flurry 
over the " Spanish match " came to an end (1623) . 

Sir Walter Raleigh had been imprisoned by James on 
the charge of plotting against the king. As a matter of fact, 
nothing was proved against Sir Walter, and his imprisonment 
was due to the jealousy of Cecil. A very famous lawyer, Sir 
Edward Coke, whose books are still studied, managed to get 
Ealeigh convicted of treason. 

James was in great need of money ; and as Ealeigh assured 
him he could find plenty of gold along the Orinoco Eiver, he 
was released and put in command of several ships to go in 
search of it. The king gave strict orders not to molest the 
Spaniards in any way. But as they claimed all of South 
America, a conflict with them would be unavoidable, and 
Ealeigh supposed the orders were not meant to be obeyed. A 
company sent out in search of gold was attacked by Spaniards, 
and in return Ealeigh captured a Spanish town. But his 
search for gold was in vain. When he returned to England, 
the Spanish ambassador urged his execution, and James, to 
please him, put Ealeigh to death on the old charge of treason, 
though Ealeigh had helped to defend his country against the 



THE STUART KINGS 




Sir Walter Raleigh Parting with his Wife. 



Armada., and was loved by all England. On the night before 
his execution (1618), Ealeigh wrote the following lines: 

" Even such is Time, that takes on trust 
Our youth, our joys, our all we have, 
And pays us but with age and dust ; 
Who, in the dark and silent grave, 
When we have wandered all our ways, 
Shuts up the story of our days ; 
But from this earth, this grave, this dust, 
My God shall raise me up, I trust." 

The American Colonies. In Elizabeth's reign Ealeigh 
had spent a large fortune on American colonization and had 



1620] JAMES I. 211 

failed. King James authorized the London and Plymouth 
companies to open trade and plant colonies in America. The 
Plymouth Company was unsuccessful ; but under the London 
Company the first permanent English colony in America was 
founded at Jamestown in Virginia in 1607. 

The charter drawn up by the king for the government of 
the new colony gave the settlers no power in the management 
of affairs. It was speedily changed, and the Virginia colony 
became flourishing. Tobacco culture became profitable, for 
smoking, which was introduced by Sir Walter Ealeigh, was 
the fashion in England. This habit was very distasteful to 
James, who wrote a book against it, called " A Counterblast 
to Tobacco." But the English people went on puffing at their 
pipes, thinking, perhaps, that James's habit of making himself 
tipsy every day was quite as bad as smoking. 

The next important colony was founded in 1620, at Plym- 
outh in New England, by the " Pilgrim Fathers " under 
the leadership of William Brewster and William Bradford. 
John Carver became their first governor. Most of these col- 
onists had once been part of a congregation of Separatists 
in the village of Scrooby, near the southern border of York- 
shire. Eefusing to conform to the English Church, they went 
to Holland and later to their new home in America. The 
king would not give them a charter, but he made no objection 
to their going and said no one should molest them if they 
behaved themselves. 

Progress of the East India Company. During the reign 
of Elizabeth, English merchants established themselves at 
Agra (p. 298), the capital of the Mogul empire in India, and 
in 1612 an English " factory," or trading station, was built at 
Surat. The splendor and wealth of the Mogul emperor ex- 
cited the astonishment of English travelers. 

Thomas Cory at visited Agra in 1612, and rode upon one of 
the imperial elephants, animals which were then one of the 



212 THE STUART KINGS [1612 

wonders of the world. In his address to the emperor, he 
said, " I am a poor traveler come hither from a far conn- 
try, England, to look npon the face of yonr blessed Majesty, 
and to see yonr Majesty's elephants, which kind of beast I 
have not seen in any other country." Voyages to India were 
then tedious and dangerous, and many ships and sailors were 
lost. Yet cloth was exported to the annual value of 14,000 
pounds, and 70,000 pounds a year was saved by buying spices 
direct from that country. 

Irish Colonization. The plans which Elizabeth had 
made for colonizing Ireland were carried on by James and 
by his successor Charles I. They granted the greater part of 
the province of Ulster to Scotch and English colonists. 

Preparation for War and Death of James. On the 
return of " Steenie " and " Baby Charles " from Madrid, the 
king grew cold toward Spain. A proposal was now made 
to marry Charles to Princess Henrietta Maria of France. The 
Parliament rejoiced at the change of the king's mind, for 
the people hated Spain as much as ever. Taxes were voted, 
and 12,000 troops were raised to assist the Protestants of 
Germany and Holland, and to restore the Elector Frederick 
to his possessions. These troops were sent off without money 
or supplies, and in a few weeks most of them were dead or 
dying from disease and exposure. Shortly after this, King 
James died (1625). 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Why was James supported by the English people? 

2. In what way was his notion of his " divine right " opposed to the 

English idea of government? 

3. Was the "Gunpowder Plot" justifiable? Give your reasons. 

4. What mistakes did James make in the management of foreign 

affairs? Why did he make them? 

5. What progress was made in colonization and trade under James? 

6. What were the chief points in dispute between James and the 

Parliament? 



1625] CHARLES I. 213 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Sir Walter Raleigh. Towle, Raleigh: his Exploits and Voyages; 

Goinme, Princesses' Story Book, pp. 201-235 ; Edgar, Sea 
Kings, etc., pp. 151-185. 

2. King James and the Witches. C. M. Tonge, Cameos from 

English History, Vol. VI. ; Colby, Sources of English History, 
pp. 177-181 ; Ainsworth, The Lancashire Witches. 

3. Prince Charles at the Spanish Court. Yonge, Cameos from 

English History, VI., pp. 151-165. 

4. Character of James I. Scott, Fortunes of Nigel, Chs. XXVL- 

XXXVII. ; Dickens, Child's History of England. 

B. Arbitrary Taxation and Civil War. 
Charles I., 1625-1649. 

How the Reign Began. The new king was very differ- 
ent from his father in his personal appearance and moral 
character, but like him in his idea of his own importance 
and dignity. He married the French princess, and agreed 
to give English Catholics freedom of worship, a thing which 
nowadays would seem to us only just and right, but which 
then seemed to the Parliament treacherous and wrong, espe- 
cially so because he had promised them not to do this very 
thing. 

Charles now took up the fight his father began, to show that 
the king was superior to Parliament. The House was com- 
posed largely of wealthy gentlemen and able lawyers, for the 
most part Puritans. They knew well the history of their 
country and were resolved to maintain the power of the Par- 
liament. This power rested upon the fact that Parliament 
had the sole right to tax the people and thus raise money for 
the government. If the king could manage to raise money 
by his own methods, he could get along without a Parliament 
and govern as he pleased. And Parliament could not meet 
unless the king sent for them. Charles quickly called his first 
Parliament and asked for money to carry on the war against 



214 THE STUART KINGS [1625 

Spain. He had kept his worthless friend Buckingham as his 
chancellor., or chief minister. Buckingham was disliked by 
the Commons, and they refused to grant money unless it 
should be spent by men whom they could trust. It had been 
the custom of the Parliament to grant a new king, for life, 
a customs duty called "tonnage and poundage." But as 
James and Charles had increased this duty without asking its 
consent, the Parliament refused to grant it for more than one 
year at a time. 

Under the advice of Buckingham, the king dismissed the 
Parliament, and, going ahead with the war, sent a fleet and 
army to attack Cadiz. The attack failed, however, and the 
English forces then tried to find the Spanish treasure fleet; 
but the fleet escaped them and got safely to port. The expe- 
dition, thinned by disease, returned without accomplishing 
anything. 

The Second Parliament. In 1626, after the return of 
the Cadiz expedition, the king called another Parliament. 
This body prepared a list of grievances, among which we 
find illegal taxation, mismanagement of the war, and tolera- 
tion to Catholics. Buckingham was impeached. Charles 
was angry and sent word that he would not allow any of 
his servants to be questioned by them, and dissolved the Par- 
liament before the duke could be brought to trial. During 
this session, there were several members who were particu- 
larly outspoken. Sir John Eliot, John Hampden, and John 
Pym were of this number. Charles arrested Pym and put 
him in prison, but was obliged to release him to prevent 
trouble. 

Eor the next two years the king did not call any Parlia- 
ment, but resorted to illegal methods of raising taxes. 
About eighty persons, who refused to pay, were put in prison. 
He compelled the Catholics to pay the old fines for not at- 
tending church. Soon France joined Spain in an alliance 



1629 1 CHARLES I. 215 

against him. The King of France was trying to put down a 
revolt among his Protestant subjects, a task in which Spain 
was willing to help him. 

With money illegally collected Charles sent a fleet under 
the command of Buckingham to the aid of the French 
Protestants at La Eochelle, but it was entirely defeated and 
forced to return. 

Third Parliament; Petition of Right. Again a Par- 
liament was called together. Forced loans and arbitrary im- 
prisonments were chief among the grievances complained of, 
but there were many others. The Parliament wrote out a 
long list of them which they embodied in the " Petition of 
Eight/' the second great document in the history of England. 
The four leading provisions of the Petition are these: first, 
that no man be compelled to make any loan to the king 
against his will, or to pay any tax not laid by Parliament; 
second, that soldiers and sailors shall not be quartered upon 
the people without their consent ; third, that no one shall be 
tried by martial law in time of peace; and, fourth, that no 
man shall be put in prison without cause being shown. The 
king for a long time refused to sign the petition, but finally 
did so. 

Another Expedition to La Rochelle. Sufficient money 
had been given by Parliament to equip another fleet to relieve 
La Eochelle, which was now besieged by the whole power of 
France. Buckingham was to be put in command again. But 
while making preparations to embark he was stabbed to the 
heart by a dissatisfied lieutenant in the former expedition. 
The fleet sailed under a new commander, but made as bad a 
failure as before. La Eochelle was taken by France and 
(( leveled to the ground, so that the soil could be plowed with 
a plow like tilled land/' 

Quarrel between King and Commons. Parliament met 
again in 1629, but the same old quarrel began over supplies 



216 THE STUART KINGS [1629 

and grievances. Two things, however, were done that are to 
be remembered. 

The Puritans had been getting more and more power in 
England, and the High Church party, to which the king and 
the bishops belonged, was not strongly supported either by 
Parliament or by the people at large. Instead of reading the 
prayer book and book of sermons to their congregations, the 
Puritan ministers would explain what they understood the 
prayer book to mean. To prevent this, Bishop William Laud 
induced Charles to issue an order forbidding ministers to 
print or preach anything " putting their own sense or com- 
ment" into the meaning of the articles (p. 175) or prayer 
book. This order of the king, when brought up for discussion 
in the House of Commons, enraged it to the last degree. 

There was one member of the House whose goods had been 
seized because he refused to pay the illegal taxes that the 
king had levied. Sir John Eliot moved that the officers who 
had taken the goods should be punished. But the king in- 
formed the House that the officers had acted according to 
his orders and should not be punished, and soon after this 
ordered the Commons to adjourn. 

But resolutions were at once proposed declaring that any 
man was an enemy of the country who should bring in any 
change in the creed and practices of the church, or who 
should advise the collection of duties not authorized by Par- 
liament, or should pay such duties unless forced to do so. 
The speaker, when he attempted to adjourn the House ac- 
cording to the king's order, was held in his chair while these 
resolutions were passed; and the guards were already break- 
ing down the doors to enforce the order when the Parliament 
adjourned. 

Members of Parliament Arrested. Immediately after 
the adjournment, the king arrested the members who had 
taken part in the disorderly proceedings attending the passage 



1629] CHARLES I. 217 

of the resolutions. Eliot was locked up in the Tower and 
kept there several years, till he died. The others apologized 
to the king and were pardoned. The king, however, had no 
right to arrest them for anything done in Parliament, as only 
that body could arrest and punish its members. 

Rule without a Parliament. For eleven years Charles 
ruled without calling another Parliament in England. He 
was determined to settle the question whether the king or 
the Parliament was to have the higher authority. In this 
experiment he was assisted chiefly by two men. William Laud, 
who was soon made Archbishop of Canterbury, was to main- 
tain the king's rule in the affairs of the church ; and Thomas 
Wentworth, afterwards Earl of Strafford and the king's chief 
adviser, tried to make him the absolute ruler of the state. 
Wentworth had been a member of the Commons, but, fore- 
seeing the coming struggle between the king and the Parlia- 
ment, he decided to support the king. "You are going to 
be undone/' said Pym, as Wentworth related his plans, "but 
remember, though you leave us, we shall never leave you while 
your head is on your shoulders." 

The State of the Country was favorable for the king's 
plans. He had made peace with both France and Spain, in 
order to have his hands free at home. The nations of Europe 
— the German states, France and Spain — were engaged in 
the Thirty Years' War, in which each had some interest 
at stake too important to allow it to interfere in England. 
The people themselves, now numbering about five millions 
in England and Wales, were prosperous. Indian and Ameri- 
can trade and colonization had begun to be of interest to mer- 
chants and adventurers. More important to Charles was the 
emigration, after 1629, of many thousands of his Puritan 
enemies to the settlements in Massachusetts, where they gov- 
erned themselves under a charter obtained by the Massachu- 
setts Bay Company. 



218 THE STUART KINGS [1629 

The king could therefore devote his whole attention to two 
things which he thought concerned most his power and dig- 
nity as an absolute sovereign: the raising of money without 
a Parliament, and the establishment of the doctrines and cus- 
toms of the English Church, including the use of the prayer 
book, throughout his dominions. 

How the King Raised Money. As a first measure, many 
monopolies were granted. The whole business of soap making 
for the kingdom was given to one company, which paid the 
king £10,000 for the monopoly and £8 a ton on all soap made. 
When people complained about its poor quality, a proclama- 
tion was issued threatening fine and imprisonment to all who 
spoke against the company. Similar monopolies were granted 
for the handling of coal, salt, iron, leather, tobacco, beer, but- 
ter, linen — in fact every industry, from rag-picking up, was 
made subject to a monopoly. The king reserved for himself 
the sale of salt to the Irish people. From the sale of monopo- 
lies he obtained about £200,000. 

The king next set to work to reclaim the royal forests. 
Large grants of land had been made from these, and were 
under cultivation. The original boundaries were now re- 
stored, and persons occupying land within such boundaries 
were compelled to give it up, or to pay the king rent for it. 
Thus the Earl of Southampton suddenly came to owe the 
king a yearly rent of £2,000. 

Ship Money. It would take too long to describe all the 
illegal devices for raising money, such as pulling down houses 
built without royal license, doubling the duty on imports, and 
so on, but the tax known as ship money was of special impor- 
tance. 

In early times ships had been furnished by the seaport 
towns to be used by the king in protecting their trade against 
pirates. About 1634 the pirates of Algiers began to attack 
English shipping, and the Dutch naval power was becoming 



1638] CHARLES I. 219 

dangerously strong. Piracy was common among civilized na- 
tions, even in time of peace, and a larger navy was necessary. 
Charles first called on the seaports to furnish and equip a 
certain number of ships, or, if they preferred, to make a 
money payment (ship money) instead. But soon Charles said 
that the whole country was interested in protecting commerce, 
and made all the counties pay ship money. 

At length a Buckinghamshire squire, John Hampden, re- 
fused to pay his share of ship money, on the ground that it 
was a tax not voted by Parliament. The amount was only 
twenty shillings, but the principle at stake was of great 
importance. The case was tried before twelve judges 
(1638), and five decided in favor of Hampden. As the ma- 
jority favored Charles, he continued the tax, but the argu- 
ments against it went through the country and set people 
thinking ; besides, it was understood that the seven judges did 
not dare to say what they really thought, for fear of the king. 

The Work of Laud in the Church. Meanwhile Laud 
was busy in making the Puritan churches use the prayer book 
and conduct service according to the Act of 
Uniformity. In 1604 the clergy of the estab- 
lished church had adopted a body of canons, 
or rules, saying how the ministers should con- 
duct church service. Laud undertook now to 
enforce these. The canon law said that the 
communion table should be in the east end of 
the church, but the Puritans wanted it in the 
middle. The minister was required to wear 
a white robe when he conducted service, and 
the prayer book was to be accurately followed, scotch 

not read here and there as the minister saw fit. Covenantee. 

The attempt by Scottish bishops, on Laud's advice, to in- 
troduce a prayer book in Scotland led to trouble at once, for 
most of the Scots were Presbyterians. When the minister 




220 THE STUART KINGS [1637 

tried to read the new service to the congregation in St. Giles 
Church at Edinburgh, they rose up and drove him from the 
pulpit. Eiots began wherever the new service was intro- 
duced, and the people signed a " Covenant/' pledging them- 
selves to resist all attempts to change their religion. 

Star Chamber Court. To enforce the collection of the 
new taxes and the use of the prescribed church service, and to 
punish all who spoke or wrote anything against the govern- 
ment, the old courts of Star Chamber and High Commission 
were again set up. The judges in these courts were the king's 
own officers, and as there was no jury every offender was con- 
victed and punished as the king pleased. 

When Wentworth was made Lord of the Northern Counties 
and Lord Deputy of Ireland, he set up courts of his own, like 
the ones at Westminster. Throughout the country, the usual 
courts were set aside, and the same man became both law- 
maker and judge. Though Wentworth robbed and bullied the 
Irish, he greatly improved the condition of the country during 
his six years of rule. The manufacture of linen was begun, 
and agriculture and trade increased. But he took from the 
people a large part of their land and compelled them to grant 
taxes to the king besides. He then wrote to Laud, " The 
king is now as absolute here as any prince in the world can 
be," and advised him to adopt in England the policy that he 
was using in Ireland, to which he gave the name of " thor- 
ough." 

The Bishops' Wars. The English people had so far 
patiently endured the tyranny of the king. But the hot- 
tempered Scotch Covenanters had taken up arms at once, and 
when Charles led his army against them to enforce the use 
of the prayer book, they met him with a better army than his 
own, and he dared not fight. 

In 1640 he again called a Parliament, but it advised him 
not to fight Scotland, and brought up the old tale about 



1641] CHARLES I. 221 

grievances, which he did not want to hear. What he wanted 
was money, and as he saw he could not get it without giving 
up his idea of ruling by " divine right/' he sent them home 
within three weeks. 

Charles mustered another army against the Scots. He 
raised money to pay them by buying a cargo of pepper on 
credit, and selling it at once for cash. But his soldiers on 
the march showed their sympathy with the Scots by breaking 
into the churches and moving the communion tables into the 
middle of the building. They allowed themselves to be de- 
feated at Newburn (p. 6), and the Scots passed on and cap- 
tured Newcastle. The king made a truce with the Covenant- 
ers, and was forced to summon a Parliament for the fifth 
time, the most famous Parliament that ever made laws for 
England. 

The Long Parliament continued in session for thirteen 
years. The former Parliaments of Charles had been content 
to lay before him a list of grievances, but now, as Pym, its 
chief leader, expressed it, "they must pull up the causes of 
grievances by the roots." 

They pulled up the chief " root " by accusing the Earl of 
Strafford (Went worth) of high treason, because he had 
planned to bring an Irish army to overawe Parliament. As 
it was impossible to prove that he had conspired to the death 
or dethronement of the king or his heirs, the legal definition 
of high treason, he was executed under an act of attainder; 
that is, an act of Parliament which condemned him to death 
without a trial. Charles had promised Strafford that he 
would not allow him to suffer "in life, honor, or fortune," 
but he was so overawed by the hatred of the people that he 
assented to the act against his friend and faithful servant. 
" Put not your trust in princes," said the earl when told that 
he must die. But Strafford was a brave man, and as he went 
upon the scaffold he said, " I thank God that I am not afraid 

NlVER 14. 



222 THE STUART KINGS [1641 

of death, but do as cheerfully put off my doublet at this time 
as ever I did when I went to bed." 

Archbishop Laud was also impeached and put in prison, 
but was not tried and executed until four years afterwards. 

The general hatred of the king, and the danger that the 
Scottish army might march against him, forced the king to 
give assent to some laws which made Parliament stronger 
than ever. They required that a Parliament must meet at 
least once in three years, whether the king called it or not; 
provided that the present Parliament could not be dissolved 
by the king without its consent ; abolished the Star Chamber 
and High Commission courts; declared ship money illegal; 
and limited the king's claims on forests. 

Bishops and Presbyters. So far the Parliament had 
acted harmoniously. But when they took up matters of re- 
ligion, they divided into parties. There were many who 
wished to keep the existing system of church government by 
bishops, and the use of the prayer book in all the churches. 
The Puritans who were opposed to these were themselves 
divided into Presbyterians and Independents, or Separatists 
(pp. 194-5) . Many people were afraid that a " new presbyter " 
might be quite as tyrannical as an " old priest." A bill to 
abolish the office of bishop caused fierce discussion but did 
not pass. Before long, however, the bishops were excluded 
from their seats in the House of Lords. 

The King's Plans. Charles had, unwillingly, consented to 
all the measures of Parliament, but secretly he was trying to 
get help in Scotland and England to put them down. In 
order to make friends with the Scotch, he went to Edinburgh 
in 1641, agreed to all the demands of the Scotch Parliament, 
and secretly tried to get them to send him an army. 

The Catholic lords in Ireland had as little liking for the 
Puritan Parliament as they did for the Puritan colonists that 
had settled among them. Impatient at the king's delay in 



1642] 



CHARLES I. 



223 




Ieishman 
op the Time. 



calling them to arms, the native Irish fell upon the English 

settlers in Ulster, and massacred thousands. The king was 

responsible for this insurrection; for 

while he did not order it, he had refused 

to disband the army there, which he could 

not control. It was recognized that an 

army should be sent to Ireland to put 

down the rebellion ; but as the Parliament 

did not dare entrust the command to the 

king, for fear he would use it against 

them, none was sent. 

The Grand Remonstrance. The 
promises that the king made in both 
England and Scotland, to reign according 
to the laws, deceived many who did not 
understand his treacherous nature. When 
he returned to London, he was given a 
splendid reception, and the people gave signs of returning 
loyalty. But Pym and other Parliamentary leaders were not 
deceived. In order to keep the king's evil conduct fresh 
before the people, they had drawn up the " Grand Eemon- 
strance." This was a review of his whole reign, describing 
all the tyrannical acts of which he had been guilty. Many 
members, who thought that the king had given up his high 
notions of " divine right," were very unwilling that the docu- 
ment should be printed. There was a fierce strife when the 
question was voted upon, and members nearly came to blows. 
But the Eemonstrance passed, was presented to the king, 
and was published to the country. 

Attempt to Arrest the Five Members*. The king had 
been gathering followers about him at Whitehall — adven- 
turers, discharged officers, and others — until he had a 
force of several hundred. These frequently came into con- 
flict with the London crowd, which was Puritan in sym- 



224: 



THE STUART KINGS 



[1642 



pathy. Some of the Puritans cut their hair short, and this 
gave rise to the name "roundheads." The followers of 
Charles were called " cavaliers." The Parliament were afraid 
that these disturbances would become dangerous to them, and 
demanded a guard of the king. It was refused, but Charles 
gave his word, " on the honor of a king, for the security of 
every one of them from violence." 

Just at this point, the king might have recovered his 
power. There was a party in Parliament that favored him, 




Charles Demands the Five Members. 

while his opponents were divided into religious factions; his 
agreement to the demands of the Scotch Parliament had 
made him friends ; and his assent to the measures of the Com- 
mons had won him support in London. He now took a step 
which showed the treachery he had planned, and which de- 
stroyed his influence. The queen urged him to seize five 
members of Parliament who had been leaders in passing the 



1642] CHARLES I. £25 

Kemonstrance. Her only idea of a king was that he should be 
absolute, as the King of France was. She advised him to 
go and pull " those rogues out by the ears." 

The king went to the House with several hundred armed 
men. He left them at the door, advanced to the speaker's 
desk, and inquired for Pym, Hampden, and three other mem- 
bers, whom he had accused of treasonable correspondence with 
the Scotch Covenanters. The speaker replied : " Sir, I have 
neither eyes to see, nor ears to hear, except as the House shall 
direct me." The five members, warned of their danger, had 
been safely concealed in the city, and the king was forced 
to retire without them. He had forcibly and unlawfully in- 
vaded the rights of the House and had failed. The citi- 
zens were roused; an armed force was raised, and the five 
members were escorted back to Westminster. 

King and Parliament Prepare for War. Soon after this, 
the king left the city with a considerable force, and tried to 
seize the arms stored at Hull. But the commandant was 
faithful to the Parliament, and refused to admit him. The 
queen, taking the crown jewels, hurried to the continent to 
raise money and troops. On August 22, 1642, Charles un- 
furled his flag at Nottingham and prepared for war. The 
Parliament called out the militia, appointed the Earl of 
Essex general, and the army moved northward to meet the 
king. 

Civil War. The whole country entered vigorously into 
the war; for political, religious, and business interests were 
bound up in it. The merchants, small farmers, and those of 
the nobility who were Puritans, were on the side of the Par- 
liament; while the large landholders, the clergy, and the 
greater part of the nobility sided with the king. In general 
it was the northern and western counties that favored the 
royalist party. The commanders of the king's army were 
the Earl of Lindsay and Prince Rupert, the nephew of Charles, 



226 



THE STUART KINGS 



[1642 



a dashing cavalry leader, but lacking in judgment. The royal 
army marched southward from Nottingham and met the 
enemy at Edgehill. Here Eupert defeated the parliamentary 
cavalry, but their infantry held the ground. The parliamen- 
tary forces, however, retreated toward London, and victory 
lay with the king. It was his hope to cut off London from 

the sea and by a 
bold move to cap- 
ture that city and 
end the war at a 
blow. He waited 
till the opportuni- 
ty passed, for the 
militia rallied to 
the defense of the 
city, reenf orce- 
ments came in, 
and the king was 
forced to retire to 
Oxford, which be- 
came his head- 
quarters for the 
rest of the war. 

The fighting 
went on all over 
England. During 
the first year of 
the war the king 
was victorious nearly everywhere. In one skirmish the 
great leader Hampden fell. But a few garrisons of the 
parliamentary army held strongholds which the royal forces 
could not take; and the king was therefore unable to gather 
all his troops for an attack on London. 

In the second year of the war a " Solemn League and 




England in the Civil War. 



1644] 



CHARLES I. 



227 



Covenant " was entered into by the Scotch and the English 
Parliament, by which the latter bound themselves to reform 
the Church of England according to> the Presbyterian system 
and the Word of God. In the beginning of 1644, a Scotch 
army crossed the border to fight on the side of the Parliament. 
About the same time, an army from Ireland entered Wales 
to fight for the king; but it was crushed at Nantwich by 
the parliamentary general Fairfax. Among the prisoners 
was George Monk, who, after two years' imprisonment in 
the Tower, entered the parliamentary army and in time rose 
to high command. 

Oliver Cromwell. So far only one leader had never met 
defeat. Oliver Cromwell had united the eastern counties 

into an association, with the ob- 
ject of keeping the war beyond 
their borders. He had defeated 
a royalist army, and had enabled 
Fairfax to hold his ground in 
Yorkshire. Cromwell had said to 
Hampden after the battle of 
Edgehill, "We can never win 
with such men as you have; old 
tapsters and servants, low-born 
and mean-spirited fellows, can 
never win against gentlemen, who 
have honor, courage, and resolu- 
tion." He then went among the Puritans in the eastern coun- 
ties and enlisted men after his own heart, stern, God-fearing, 
determined men, who prayed before they fought, and fought 
for the love of the cause, believing that God would give them 
victory. In a few months he had trained and equipped a 
cavalry regiment which had no equal on either side. 

Prince Eupert with 20,000 men met the Scotch and Crom- 
well's new troops at Marston Moor. The stern, religious 




Ckomwell. 



228 THE STUART KINGS [1644 

Puritan met the gentleman of honor. Cromwell's charge on 
Eupert's ca.valry crumbled them to pieces and scattered them, 
as he said, "like a little dust/' But he did not pursue. 
Wheeling about, he promptly charged the royalist infantry 
with the same result. The north of England was conquered. 
Elsewhere Charles was winning victories. 

The New Model. Cromwell, as a member of Parlia- 
ment, now attacked the weak spot in the parliamentary 
army. The officers were nearly all of the Presbyterian party. 
They feared the growing strength of the Independents, to 
which party Cromwell belonged. This party wished to do 
away with the kingship and the House of Lords and make the 
churches independent of the government. While the Presby- 
terians wished to defeat the king, they did not wish to beat 
him too badly, for fear that the Independents would become 
masters. A " Self-denying Ordinance " was introduced, pro- 
viding that members of Parliament should resign their offices 
in the army; and soon Parliament reorganized its troops as 
the New Model Army, largely with new officers. Fairfax was 
made general and Cromwell lieutenant general. 

Battle of Naseby, June 14, 1645. The New Model 
Army, after a year of training, met the king at Naseby. Eu- 
pert commanded the right wing of the royalists, Cromwell 
the right wing of the parliamentarians. Both were victorious, 
but Cromwell, returning from the charge, attacked Eupert's 
horse in flank and routed them. 

The king was hopelessly defeated. The small armies that 
remained to him in different parts of the country were soon 
scattered, and the war was over. 

Negotiations with the King. And now came a time of 
tedious attempts to make peace. The king might still have 
made an honorable arrangement with the Parliament and 
saved his life and his throne, but he continued plotting, 
hoping that the rival parties in Parliament would destroy each 



1649] CHARLES I. 229 

other, or that the Scots would come to his assistance. The 
king had surrendered to the Scottish army, who turned him 
over to the English Parliament. The army then took charge 
of him, and offered to make peace with him and to allow the 
Church of England to be set up again, if he would agree that 
no one should be compelled to attend, and that Protestants 
should have full religious liberty. He refused these terms 
and escaped to the Isle of Wight, where he met commission- 
ers from Scotland and made an agreement with them by which 
they were to renew the war. 

But the Scotch army was badly defeated by Cromwell at 
Preston. Charles was again captured and confined safely in 
Hurst Castle, where no help could reach him. 

Pride's Purge. The Presbyterian party in the Parliament 
still wanted to make terms with the king. But the army, 
now entirely under the control of the Independents, had 
lost all patience with him, and determined to have a Parlia- 
ment that would obey its will. One clay Colonel Pride ap- 
peared with a body of troopers sent by the Independents, and 
expelled more than a hundred of the members who favored 
the king. The remaining sixty were called by their enemies 
the "Eump." 

Trial and Execution of the King. The "Kump" ap- 
pointed a special High Court to try Charles for his past 
misdeeds. He refused to plead, on the ground that they had 
no power to try him. But they accused and convicted him of 
high treason against the nation. The conclusion of the death- 
warrant read, " For all of which treasons and crimes this 
court doth adjudge that he, the said Charles Stuart, as a 
tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good 
people of this nation, shall be put to death by severing his 
head from his body." His execution took place, in front of 
his own palace of Whitehall, on the 30th of January, 1649. 
He behaved with great dignity and calmness, and said that he 



230 



THE STUART KINGS 



[1649 




Charles's Farewell to his Family. 

died an enemy to arbitrary rule, and a martyr to the people. 
But the executioner, as he held up the head before the multi- 
tude, cried out, " This is the head of a traitor ! " 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. In what ways did Charles infringe upon the rights of Parliament? 

2. What was the significance of the Petition of Right? Name its 

chief provisions. 
3- Explain the working and effect of the king's monopolies. 

4. What actions of Charles brought on the war? How could he 

have saved his crown? 

5. Which two battles of the war were most important? Why? 

6. What questions were settled by the Civil War? 

7. Why did the people object to paying ship money? 

8. Name the chief laws of the Long Parliament and tell why each 

was made. 

9. Was it just to execute Strafford and Laud? The king? Give rea- 

sons. How could the king's execution have been avoided? 



1G49] CROMWELL 231 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. John Hampden. Mowry, First Stej)s in the History of England, 

Ch. XIV. ; Green, Short History, pp. 500, 550. 

2. The Earl of Strafford. Kendall, Source Book, pp. 232-237 ; 

Traill, Lord Strafford. 

3. Trial and Execution of Charles I. Yonge, Cameos from 

English History, VII., pp. 110-128 ; Lee, Source Book, pp. 
364-372. 

4. Cromwell's "Ironsides." Mowry, First StejJs in the History of 

England, Ch. XX.; Firth, Cromwell, Ch. VI. 

C. Cromwell and the Commonwealth. 

The Establishment of the Commonwealth followed the 
death of the king. There remained in the House of Com- 
mons about sixty members, who declared that England was 
a commonwealth, without any king or House of Lords. In 
this action the Rump, which now called itself the Parliament, 
was supported by the army, but not by the majority of the 
people. So instead of calling for the election of a new House 
it kept the power in its own hands. Forty-one men were 
selected by the House as a Council of State, who were to have 
charge of the executive part of the government. John Brad- 
shaw was chosen president of the Council. 

War in Ireland. On the death of the king, Ireland and 
Scotland had acknowledged his eldest son as King Charles II. 
Prince Rupert was on the Irish coast with a fleet. The new 
king had already been crowned in Scotland, and Scotch and 
Irish armies would soon be on the way to London to crush 
the new republic. Cromwell, as the ablest soldier, was put in 
command of the army. After subduing a mutiny among the 
soldiers, he led them into Ireland. This country had been 
in a fearful condition of disorder for eight years. After the 
king's execution the Irish united strongly for Charles II. 
Only Dublin and Londonderry held out (p. 232). 

Landing at Dublin, Cromwell marched northward and 
besieged Drogheda with its garrison of 2,000 men. Their 




Longitude West 8 



SCALE OF MILES 



20 10 60 80 100 



from 



Greenwich 



1651] CROMWELL 233 

commander was asked to surrender in a note ending in these 
words: "If, upon refusing this offer, that which you like 
not befalls you, you will know whom to blame." The officer 
would not surrender, and Cromwell stormed the fort and 
put the entire garrison to the sword. In defense of his se- 
verity he wrote, " I believe this bitterness will save much 
effusion of blood, through the goodness of God." Wexford, 
a strong fort in the south, was treated in a similar manner. 
After that the other posts surrendered. Within the year, Ire- 
land was under the control of the Parliament, and the sup- 
porters of the House of Stuart fled to the continent. 

War with the Scots. Charles II., having signed the 
Covenant agreeing to establish the Presbyterian Church, was 
supported by the Scots with a strong army. Cromwell met 
them (1650) with 16,000 men. The Scots cut off his retreat 
and posted themselves on a hill near the sea, where it was 
difficult to attack them. Cromwell waited till they began a 
change of position, and then succeeded in utterly routing them 
in the battle of Dunbar. A year later the Scots invaded Eng- 
land but were again defeated at Worcester. Charles rode 
away alone, and after many narrow escapes from capture, 
reached France. Long after, a tree, called the "royal oak," 
was pointed out where the prince had concealed himself among 
the branches while his pursuers searched the woods for him 
in vain. Cromwell called this battle his " crowning mercy." 
He never had occasion to draw his sword again. 

The Dutch War. Cromwell and the army were now su- 
preme. But they had fought for the liberty and honor of 
England, and not for themselves alone. During the war, the 
Dutch had devoted themselves steadily to trade, and their 
merchant vessels were larger and swifter than those of Eng- 
land. Goods that were once brought to England by her own 
merchantmen were now carried by the Dutch. Cromwell 
determined to stop this, and to make England supreme again. 



234 THE COMMONWEALTH [1651 

A Navigation Act was passed, which ordered that all goods 
landed in the ports of England must be brought in English 
ships, or in the ships of the country from which the goods 
came. He demanded that all ships sailing the Channel should 
salute the English flag. As the Dutch refused to acknowledge 
his extravagant claim, war began. 

Robert Blake, who had fought successfully in the last war, 
was made " general of the sea." He destroyed the fleet of 
Prince Eupert, and fought four noted engagements with the 
Butch. The first two were victories. In 1652, with forty 
ships, he met Van Tromp with eighty. The Dutchman 
was victorious and sailed through the Channel with a great 
Dutch broom at the masthead, signifying by this that he had 
swept the English from the seas. But Blake was ready again 
in a few months, and they met off Calais, this time with equal 
forces, and Van Tromp was defeated. 

Blake next took an English fleet into the Mediterranean 
(1654), to chastise the pirates who had long preyed on mer- 
chant vessels. Tunis was attacked, a Turkish fleet of nine 
ships destroyed, and an army of 3,000 slain and captured. Al- 
giers and Tripoli were taken, and many Englishmen who had 
been made slaves were set free. The following year, he de- 
feated the Spanish, closing the war with the most daring 
exploit in his history. He sailed into the harbor of Santa 
Cruz, in the Canaries, which was strongly defended by forts 
and ships of war, and destroyed and rifled a Spanish treasure 
fleet returning from South America, escaping with a loss of 
only one ship. He died on his return to England, and Crom- 
well buried him with the highest honors in Westminster 
Abbey. 

The deeds of Blake secured for the new republic the respect 
of foreign nations, that had before refused to recognize it. 
Cromwell was honored, and his friendship sought, by the 
greatest kings of Europe. As the price of his aid to France 



1658] CROMWELL 235 

against Spanish Flanders, Dunkirk (map, p. 274) was added 
to the English possessions. 

Cromwell and the Parliament. In the mean time the 
Bump had come to be very much disliked. In the first place, 
it did not represent the people, as it was only a fraction of 
a Parliament elected thirteen years before. Then it had be- 
come corrupt and selfish. Cromwell was anxious to have a 
new Parliament chosen that should represent the nation more 




Cromwell Dissolves the Rump. 

fully. And yet he did not dare give the people full freedom 
of election, for fear that the Puritans and all their work would 
be overturned, and Charles II. invited to take his throne. 

At last the Eump agreed upon a law providing for a new 
Parliament, but also providing that they should retain their 
seats as members of it. Cromwell was angry at this, for he 
believed it to be selfish and dishonest. He could prevent the 
passing of the bill only by breaking up the Parliament. So 



236 THE PROTECTORATE [1653 

he took a company of soldiers to the House at the next meet- 
ing, and, after listening a while, he stepped out on the floor 
and began to scold various members for their bad personal 
habits and worse public actions. Being interrupted, he cried 
out angrily, " Come, we have had enough of this, you must get 
out and make way for honest men. You are not fit to sit 
here any longer." He called his soldiers and cleared the 
room. He then locked the door and put the key in his pocket. 
The country was glad to be rid of the Eump. As Cromwell 
expressed it, " Not even a dog barked at their going." 

Barebone's Parliament. Cromwell and his officers now 
selected a Parliament themselves. Only men who were known 
to be religious and honorable were allowed to sit in it. 
Cromwell told them the country ought to be ruled by godly 
men, and that he had chosen them because they were known 
to be such. As it consisted of only one hundred and fifty 
men, it was called the Little Parliament; but the royalists 
nicknamed it Barebone's Parliament from the curious name 
of a London leather merchant, Praise-God Barebone, who 
was a member. 

The members of this Parliament proved to be very poor 
statesmen. They wanted to abolish church rates, without 
providing any other means of supporting the clergy ; and they 
announced that the reign of the Saints had come, they being 
the Saints. Some of the more sensible among them got up 
early one morning (Dec. 11, 1653) and stole a march on the 
other " Saints " by passing a measure putting all power into 
the hands of Cromwell and a council of twenty-one men. 
They then adjourned. 

Cromwell Lord Protector. An " Instrument of Govern- 
ment " was now drawn up by Cromwell's friends, telling how 
he was to govern. Parliament was to make the laws allowed 
by the Instrument, and a Council of State was to assist the 
Lord Protector, who could not act without its approval. The 



1658] CROMWELL 237 

object of the Instrument was to prevent either the Parliament 
or the Protector from getting too much power. Of course 
Cromwell was the first Protector. 

CromwelPs Second Parliament was elected in 1654. No 
royalists or Catholics were allowed to vote. This Parlia- 
ment began by trying to break down the form of government 
which had been established, although they were pledged not 
to alter it. The explanation is that the whole country was 
tired of the strict Puritan rule, tired of the rule of the army 
headed by Cromwell, and was ready to sweep it all away at 
the first chance. Cromwell dismissed this Parliament after a 
few months, and got along without another for two years. 

To prevent a revolt of the royalists and to enforce the 
payment of taxes which the Instrument had allowed him to 
raise, he divided the country into ten military districts, and 
placed over each a major general, who was to keep order and 
enforce the law; but as soon as the country became quiet, 
he withdrew them, and allowed things to go on in the usual 
way. He would not tolerate revolt or disorder, and those 
who stirred up rebellion against him soon found their way 
to the scaffold. 

Cromwell's Third Parliament met in 1656, just after one 
of Blake's Spanish victories. When a train of thirty-eight 
wagons, loaded with silver, passed through the streets of 
London, the people applauded him as they never had before. 
The Parliament voted him money, and offered to make him 
king, a title which he would not accept. An Upper House of 
Parliament was again established, and an effort was made to 
get back as nearly as possible to the old form of government. 
The Parliament embodied these changes in a law called " The 
Humble Petition and Advice." Things went well for a time, 
and then the two Houses began to quarrel. Some conspired 
with the royalists, others took measures to have Cromwell's 
office abolished. An invasion was threatened from Ireland, 



238 THE PROTECTORATE [1658 

another one from Spain, and the two Houses could agree on 
nothing. Finally, in February, 1658, he appeared before the 
Parliament and said, " I do dissolve this Parliament, and 
may God judge between you and me ! " " If it had continued 
a few days longer," he wrote afterwards, " all had been blood 
on Charles Stuart's account." 

Cromwell had tried to make a settled government and had 
failed. He had been tolerant of all the Protestant sects, 
except when they wanted to disturb the government. He was 
a friend to the Quakers, sent missionaries to the Indians, and 
allowed the Jews to return to England, after an exclusion of 
three and a half centuries. 

But the people could no longer endure the 
severity of the Puritan, who prohibited every 
form of amusement, even to dancing around 
the May pole and " eating pie at Christmas." 
The old sports of Elizabeth's time were all 
unholy to the Puritan. His spare time was 
given to preaching, singing psalms, and talk- 
ing in sorrowful tones about religion. 

Death of Cromwell. Cromwell died 
September 3, 1658. He was worn out and 
saddened by his toil for England, and by its 

A Puritan j ° J 

Gentleman, result. The day of his death was the anni- 
versary of his victories of Dunbar and Worcester. His last 
prayer was for the people of England. " Lord, pardon thy 
foolish people, forgive them their sins, and do not forsake 
them ; love and bless them and give them rest ! " 

Richard Cromwell was made Lord Protector partly be- 
cause it was thought that Oliver had desired his son to succeed 
him; but this is doubtful. Eichard cared little for public 
affairs, and offended the Puritans by his disregard for religion. 
He once appointed a certain royalist to a command in the 
army, to whom the objection was made that he was not a godly 




1660] CROMWELL 239 

man. Bichard asked whether he was expected to have none 
but godly people about him. "Why, here is Dick In- 
goldsby," he said, "who can neither preach nor pray, and 
I would trust him before any of you/' The army would 
not countenance a man like that, and soon recalled the old 
Bump Parliament to Westminster. The Bump and the army 
divided the power between them, and Bichard retired to pri- 
vate life. The Bump passed a resolution to conduct the 
government without any " single person, king, protector, or 
House of Peers." 

General Monk, who had command of the army in Scot- 
land, had been a quiet observer of these unending strifes. 
He decided to act for the country, and marched with his part 
of the army to London. He began by calling the entire 
Long Parliament together, including the Presbyterians ex- 
pelled by Pride (p. 229). By his advice the Parliament then 
formally dissolved itself after ordering a new election. 

Charles was already in communication with Monk and now 
made a written promise, called the " Declaration at Breda," 
to pardon all offenders, save those who might be excepted by 
Parliament, and to sign the bills that Parliament should pass 
for giving liberty of religion and paying the army. The 
army threatened to make trouble. So great was the danger 
that General Monk raised a force of militia to oppose it. 
But the new Parliament promptly accepted Charles's offer 
and voted that the government should be as in former days, 
by King, Lords, and Commons. 

Charles Landed at Dover May 25, 1660. Amidst the 
cheering crowds he entered London, and passed through the 
army to Whitehall. The people made his reception eloquent 
with peals of bells, waving of flags, and blazing of bonfires. 
" It must have been my own fault," said he, " that I did not 
come before, for I find no one but declares he is glad to see 
me." 

NlVER 15. 



240 THE STUART KINGS AND CROMWELL [1630 

Emigration to America was greatly increased by the 
troubles in England during the thirty years preceding 1660. 

Archbishop Laud's policy in church affairs hurried thou- 
sands of Puritan emigrants to America., forming a Puritan 
"exodus" that continued till 1640. John Winthrop, a 
wealthy gentleman of Suffolk, was one of the Massachusetts 
Bay Company that secured a charter for governing a colony 
in New England. He sold his estates, and led the great 
Puritan migration of 1630. He became the first governor of 
Massachusetts and continued to be reelected - (except three 
years) until his death (1649). Not only did the Massachu- 
setts colony become for the time the largest in America 
(26,000 in 1640), but it furnished many of the settlers who 
founded the other New England colonies, — Ehode Island, 
Connecticut, and New Hampshire. 

Persecution under Cromwell's rule was quite as vigorous as 
under the rule of the Stuarts ; but this persecution was chief- 
ly against the royalists, or cavaliers. As a result of this 
persecution the ancestors of the " first families of Virginia " 
emigrated. Between 1650 and 1670 the population of Vir- 
ginia increased from 15,000 to 40,000. 

The Catholics were persecuted alike by all parties, and some 
of them also found a refuge in America. George Calvert, 
Lord Baltimore, obtained from Charles I. the grant of some 
land north of the Potomac River. His son Cecil planted the 
first Catholic colony in Maryland in 1634 (map, p. 303) . 

Thus we see how largely American colonization was due 
to religious persecution in England. It took most of the 
colonists a long time to learn from their own persecution to 
give freedom to others. But they finally learned that lesson, 
and we may say that our free churches to-day grew out of 
the religious persecution in England. 

Besides the colonies on the North American mainland, 
Barbados and several other islands of the West Indies re- 



16G0] COLONIES 241 

ceived many English settlers during this period of civil strife. 
They became important through the production of sugar. 
Barbados was unclaimed before England took possession in 
the reign of James I. Jamaica was taken from, Spain by one 
of Cromwell's fleets. 

English Progress in the Indies, which had begun in the 
time of Elizabeth, was cut short by the rise of the Dutch 
East India Company during the civil war. The English 
East India Company was a monopoly in the hands of a few, 
while that of Holland represented the whole nation, since any 
merchant could join it. The result was that nearly all the 
East India trade was secured by the Dutch merchants, whose 
superior navy captured or drove out the English merchants. 
The monopoly, which fettered the progress of England in the 
Indies, was not done away with till 1833. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. What changes did Cromwell make in the government of England? 

2. Compare his foreign policy with that of James I. 

3. How did his rule affect American colonization? 

4. How did Cromwell's government fail? Why? 

5. What led to the Restoration? 

6. What led to Cromwell's Dutch wars? 

7. When was the Long Parliament finally dissolved? What were its 

most important acts? 

8. How long did the Protectorate last? In what did it succeed; in 

what fail? Why? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Montrose. Rolfe, Tales from Scottish History, pp. 121-129. 

2. Robert Blake. Edgar, Sea Kings, pp. 200-26; Firth, Cromwell, 

pp. 308-315. 

3. Cromwell in Ireland. Lawless, Story of Ireland, Chaps. XXIX., 

XL. 

4. Naval War with the Dutch. F. M. Peard, Scapegrace Dick. 

5. .The Battles of Dunbar and Worcester. Firth, Cromwell, 

Ch. XIV. 



IX. THE STUART KINGS AND ORANGE. 

A. The Restoration". 
Charles II., 1660-1685. 

The Restoration is the name usually given to that period 
when the third Stuart king began to reign; although Charles 
II. claimed that he had been reigning for eleven years, but 
had been kept out of his kingdom by that " base mechanic 
fellow," Cromwell. But the Restoration meant more than the 
coming back of the king. It meant the coming back of the 
Parliament, for we must remember that the people had not 
been fairly represented in Cromwell's time. It meant also 
the coming back of the old church, with its bishops and prayer 
book, and the coming back of the old amusements and social 
life. The theaters were again opened, the village holidays 
were again celebrated with the old bear baiting, horse racing, 
cockfighting, dancing, and buffoonery. 

It was more than a restoration of the old customs. The 
English people, so long deprived of innocent amusements by 
the strict Puritan rule, now went to the other extreme. Lying, 
cheating, gambling, and fighting were the least of their 
vices. These things were part of the life of a gentleman of 
that day, and it was thought no disgrace to brawl and fight 
in the street or to become hopelessly drunk and spend the 
night in the gutter. 

" The King shall Enjoy his Own Again," was the re- 
frain of an old royalist song; and if ever king tried to make 
such a prediction good, Charles was that king. He had no 

242 



1662] 



CHARLES II. 



243 



sense of duty to his people, and spent enormous sums of the 
government money on his pleasures. He had not enjoyed 
life very much dur- 
ing his twelve years 
of exile, and now 
with his courtiers in- 
dulged in all kinds 
of excess, vice, and 
depravity. 

" Shaftesbury," said 
he one day to a fa- 
vorite courtier, "I be- 
lieve you are the 
wickedest dog in my 
dominions." 

" Yes, your Ma- 
jesty," replied the 
courtier, " I think 
that among your 
subjects, I probably 
am." 

The king was discreet, however, in spite of his wickedness. 
He was determined, as he said, not " to set out on his travels 
again." He did not repeat the errors of his father. When 
he saw that the people were bound to have a certain measure, 
he gave way and let them have it. The king soon married 
a Portuguese princess, Catherine of Braganza, a marriage 
which brought with it Bombay, the first English possession 
in India. Though he outwardly conformed to the English 
Church, he was at heart a Catholic, and would have been 
glad to secure from Parliament fair treatment for English 
Catholics if it had been possible. 

The Parliament of 1660 was known as the Convention 
Parliament to distinguish it from those regularly summoned 




Gat Court Life of Charles II. 



244 THE STUART KINGS [1660 

by the king. It restored the lands that had been taken from 
the royalists and the church; and it granted pardon for past 
political acts to all except the judges and executioners who 
had put Charles I. to death. Thirteen of these " regicides " 
were executed, and nineteen imprisoned for life. Nineteen 
others fled to foreign countries. The dead bodies of Cromwell 
and other regicides were taken from their graves and hanged. 
Even the body of the heroic Blake was taken from its tomb 
in the Abbey. The king held that all who had fought with 
Cromwell were guilty of high treason and deserved death, 
and he urged the Parliament to mean and disgusting acts of 
vengeance. 

The New Parliament which met in 1661 was almost en- 
tirely composed of friends of the king, and hence was 
called the Cavalier Parliament, They set to work at once 
to restore the Anglican Church, and to drive out the Puri- 
tans and other dissenters. All ministers who would not use 
the prayer book were turned out of their livings. By a later 
act religious meetings of dissenters were prohibited. Any 
gathering of dissenters for religious worship was called a 
" conventicle," and the royalists held that conventicles en- 
couraged rebellion. By other laws dissenters were disquali- 
fied from holding office in a corporation, that is, a village or 
city; and non-conformist ministers were forbidden to come 
within five miles of any corporation where they had preached 
since 1660. 

John Bunyan of Bedfordshire was one of the dissenting 
preachers imprisoned under these laws. He was a poor la- 
borer, a tinker by trade. He had been very wicked in his 
youth, but was converted to the Puritan faith and became 
a traveling preacher. For " devilishly and perniciously " 
keeping away from the established church, he was put in 
Bedford jail, where he remained twelve years. While there 
he wrote several books, the most wonderful of which is " The 



1G64] CHARLES II. 245 

Pilgrim's Progress/' a tale of a " pilgrimage from this world 
to the next/' 

John Milton, who had been Cromwell's Latin secretary, 
now grown old and blind, wrote "Paradise Lost/' the most 
wonderful poem in all English literature. He is called the 
" Poet of Puritanism/' because his poems express all that 
was best in the Puritan government and religion. His arrest 
was ordered by the Cavalier Parliament, but he was finally 
pardoned and allowed to complete his great work. 

Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, was the chief adviser 
of the king. He had been the minister of Charles I., had 
lived in exile with the prince, and returned to England with 
him at the Restoration. Both Charles and Hyde were friends 
of the great French king Louis XIV., who paid them well 
for their friendship. Louis was desirous of obtaining free- 
dom for the English Catholics, and of keeping peace with 
England, so that it would not interfere with his • plans on 
the continent. He was ambitious to conquer the Netherlands 
and add them to France, and hoped in time to get control of 
Spain also through the claims of his wife, who was a Spanish 
princess. 

Dunkirk was sold to Louis by Charles II. and Clarendon. 
This town stood on the northern border of France, and was 
the last English possession on the continent. The nation 
looked upon it with pride as the fruit of the last war with 
Spain (p. 235), and its sale was regarded as an act of 
infamy and disgrace. 

About this time Charles declared in favor of giving free- 
dom of worship to those non-conformists who did not inter- 
fere with the peace of the state. But Parliament saw in this 
an attempt to give freedom to Catholics, and refused to sup- 
port the king in it. 

Another War with the Dutch broke out in 1664, caused 
by the reenactment of the Navigation Law, and by the 



246 THE STUART KINGS [1664 

rivalry of the two nations in the Indian trade. The war 
went on in India, along the coast of Africa, and in America, 
where an English fleet seized the Dutch colony of New 
Netherlands thereupon renamed New York in honor of the 
Duke of York, the king's brother. A series of bloody battles 
took place off the eastern coast of England in which the 
Dutch were finally victorious. 

The enormous amount of £2,500,000 had been voted 
Charles to carry on the war. But this money, which should 
have been spent in keeping the navy in repair and in sup- 
plying men and guns, was squandered by the king on his 
friends and favorites. The result was that in the third year 
of the war the Dutch sailed up the Thames and blockaded 
London for several days, and the English could not muster 
ships enough to drive them out. Peace was made in 1667, 
by which England had to give up her claims to the Spice 
Islands in the East Indies, but she was allowed to retain the 
colony of New York. 

The Great Plague broke out in London during the Dutch 
war. The streets of those days were narrow and dirty, and 
without pavements or sewers. The houses were built with 
the upper stories projecting over the lower ones, thus shut- 
ting out the sunlight and air. The disease, once started, 
spread with frightful rapidity, and 100,000 people died within 
six months in the city of London alone. 

Every house where the disease appeared was at once marked 
with a red cross and the words, " Lord, have mercy on us," 
written below. The dead were brought out and flung into 
carts that were sent through the streets every night, and they 
were buried without coffins, a hundred or more in one com- 
mon grave. As many people left the city as were able, and 
grass grew in the deserted streets. 

The Great Fire (1666). As cold weather came on, the 
plague slowly died out. But people had scarcely become set- 



1667] 



CHARLES II. 



247 







Wf%T%& 1J^I2P&* iflSm- 




fllPiiSIli 




tied again in their homes and occupations, when a great fire 
occurred, which burned out the whole heart of the city, leav- 
ing only a mere fringe 
of houses on the out- 
skirts. Nearly all the 
public buildings, in- 
cluding St. Paul's 
Cathedral and eighty- 
nine churches, were 
burned. The Tower 
and Westminster Ab- 
bey were saved through 
the efforts of the king 
by blowing up the 
neighboring streets 
with gunpowder. 

For many years a 
monument built on 
the spot where the fire began, bore an inscription which 
accused the Catholics of setting fire to the city. This unjust 
charge was afterwards erased. The poet Alexander Pope 
wrote of it the following : 

" Where London's column pointing to the skies, 
Like a tall bully, lifts its head and lies." 

In spite of the great loss of property, the fire was a good 
thing for London. A new city was laid out by the great 
architect Sir Christopher Wren, with straight, wide streets, 
thus preventing a return of the old disease and filth. He 
also built the new cathedral of St. Paul's with its wonderful 
dome, after which the dome of the Capitol at Washington 
was modeled. He was buried in the cathedral, and the in- 
scription on the tomb reads, " If you seek his monument, 
reader, look around you." 

" The Cabal " was the name given to the king's chief ad- 



The New St. Paul's Cathedral. 



248 THE STUART KINGS [1667 

visers after the Earl of Clarendon was driven into exile be- 
cause of his French preferences and his failure in the Dutch 
war. The word meant a body of secret advisers, and besides 
it happened that the five letters of the word were the initial 
letters of the names of the men : Clifford, Ashley, Buck- 
ingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. 

A change of policy toward France now began. England 
made an alliance with Holland and Sweden, to resist the 
attack of Louis on the Netherlands. But while Charles open- 
ly professed himself on the side of the Dutch, he did so only 
to secure more money from the French king. At the same 
time, because he showed himself firm against Louis and com- 
pelled him to make peace with the Netherlands, his Parlia- 
ment made him a large grant of money. 

Secret Treaty of Dover. The king now made a secret 
treaty with Louis, at Dover, by which he agreed to join him 
in another war on the Dutch, with an army of 6,000 men, 
and to acknowledge himself a Catholic when he saw fit to 
do so. In case his English subjects should rise against him, 
Louis was to assist him in putting them down with an army 
of 6,000 men, thirty ships, and a large sum of money. 
Charles was to receive also during the proposed war an 
annual pension of £230,000, for which he agreed to give 
his Catholic subjects liberty of worship. 

The New Dutch War was begun in 1672. But the Dutch 
successfully defended themselves against the English attacks 
at sea, and when Louis invaded the Netherlands the people 
cut the dikes and let the ocean flood the country till the 
French had to retreat. 

The Declaration of Indulgence (1672) was made by 
Charles in order to keep his agreement with Louis. This was a 
proclamation by the king suspending all laws interfering 
with any peaceable form of worship. But the Parliament 
began now to understand the treacherous nature of the king, 



1G78] CHARLES II. 249 

and declared that the Declaration broke forty laws, and that 
the laws could not be suspended except by an act of Parlia- 
ment. When Charles saw that further resistance would 
mean "to resume his travels" he yielded. 

The Test Act was now passed by Parliament, requiring 
every man appointed to any office in the army, navy, or in 
the government, to be a communicant of the Church of 
England, and to say that he did not believe that the bread 
and wine of the sacrament became the actual body and blood 
of Christ when blessed by the priest. This was considered 
proof that he was not a Catholic. This act drove all honest 
Catholics and some Protestant dissenters out of office ; among 
them the Duke of York ceased to be admiral of the navy, and 
Clifford, one of the Cabal, ceased to be the king's treasurer. 

Alliance with Holland. The secret treaty of Dover 
became generally known about this time, and made people 
more determined than ever to avoid any agreement with 
Catholic countries which should threaten the absolute su- 
premacy of the English Church. 

An important marriage was now arranged. As no children 
had been born to the king and queen, Charles's brother, the 
Catholic Duke of York, would succeed to the throne. But 
his only children were two daughters, Mary and Anne, both 
Protestants. Mary was now married to her cousin Wil- 
liam III. of Orange, the Stadtholder, or chief magistrate, of 
Holland. He was the leader of the Protestants of Europe 
against Erance. This marriage secured the alliance of Hol- 
land and made it probable that a Protestant line would suc- 
ceed the Duke of York on the English throne. 

The So-called Popish Plot. A certain Titus Oates, who 
had been a rascal from his youth, asserted that he knew of 
a plot to murder the king. He said that after the murder of 
Charles, James was to be put on the throne, and an army 
brought over from Erance to suppress Protestantism by force. 



250 THE STUART KINGS [1678 

Oates's story seemed to be supported by the fact that the 
magistrate who examined him was soon afterwards murdered. 
The tale soon spread, and was magnified a thousand times 
in the telling. From being merely a plot to kill the king, 
which would not have caused much regret, it came to include 
the burning of London, the complete destruction of the Eng- 
lish Church, and the massacre of thousands of innocent people. 
There was really no truth in Oates's story; but every Protes- 
tant of note now considered himself marked for slaughter, 
and went armed. 

Oates, seeing his story credited, now began to accuse large 
numbers of innocent people, especially Catholics. As many 
as two thousand were imprisoned, and seventeen put to death, 
before judges and juries came to their senses and began to 
look closely into the evidence given against the accused, to see 
whether it was not false. 

A New Parliament, chosen in the midst of the excite- 
ment, was found to contain only thirty members who favored 
the king. This Parliament, led by Ashley, the Earl of 
Shaftesbury, passed the Habeas Corpus Act which put an 
end to keeping people in prison without trial. Any man who 
was arrested after this might be brought at once before a 
judge, who would examine into the case and set him free if 
he were not rightfully held for trial. 

A law was now proposed to exclude James, the Duke of 
York, from the succession to the throne, because it was held 
that no Catholic king could peacefully rule a Protestant 
people. The effect of such a law would have been to make 
James's daughter Mary the next heir to the crown. To pre- 
vent the bill from passing, Charles dissolved the Parliament. 
The next two Parliaments were dissolved for the same reason. 

The Names Whig and Tory now began to be applied to 
the two parties, the one favoring and the other opposing the 
Exclusion Bill. The word " Whig " was a Scotch name given 



1683] CHARLES II. 251 

to the Covenanting rebels in the west of Scotland. The name 
" Tory " was originally applied to Irish brigands. Therefore 
when the Duke's friends called Shaftesbury and his followers 
Whigs, it was like saying that they were on a level with 
Scotch rebels. And when the Whigs called the Duke's friends 
Tories it was like saying that they were, no better than Irish 
thieves. These names, first used in contempt, are still some- 
times applied to the two great political parties in England. 

The extreme Whigs, passing over the rights of James's 
daughters, Mary and Anne, favored the succession of the 
Duke of Monmouth, a popular Protestant noble, who had no 
lawful claim to the crown. They had come armed to Parlia- 
ment, and many people now feared that the Whigs were in- 
tending to set up Monmouth by force. But the people dis- 
liked civil war more than a Catholic king, and by the end of 
the year 1681 the country had become as strongly Tory as it 
had been strongly Whig two years before. Leading Whigs 
were now accused of treason, and Shaftesbury, to save his 
life, fled to Holland, where he died. 

The Rye House Plot. Charles revoked the charters of 
London and of the other large towns, and issued different 
ones, giving power to the Tories. The Eye House plot grew 
out of this attack on the liberties of the people. It was a 
desperate plan of some of the Whigs to murder the king and 
the Duke of York at a place known as the Eye House. The 
plot was discovered, and several of those concerned in it were 
executed. 

The king refused to call any more Parliaments, for fear 
the Whigs would bring up more measures to exclude his 
brother from the throne. An association was formed among 
the Whigs to compel the king in some way to call a Par- 
liament. Just how they intended to do this is not known. 

The king, when he heard of it, made it a pretense for 
arresting some of the leading Whigs and accusing them of 



252 THE STUART KINGS [1660 

having had a share in the Eye House plot. Algernon Sidney 
and Lord William Eussell were tried and executed, and the 
Earl of Essex committed suicide in prison. Against Sidney 
there was no proof of anything, except that he believed that 
an unworthy king could be deposed by his people. Eussell 
was held to believe that with a Catholic on the throne the 
people would not be secure, as no doubt he did. He made an 
eloquent defense, but of no avail. The king insisted on his 
death, and even the offer of a. hundred thousand pounds did 
not move him. 

Scotland and Ireland, like England, had accepted Charles 
in 1660. In Scotland, during his reign, many of the people 
accepted the Church of England. The strict " Covenanters," 
as the steadfast Presbyterians were called, were cruelly perse- 
cuted. Lauderdale, one of the Cabal, was first sent to bring 
them into subjection. The Covenanters were routed at Both- 
well Bridge by the Duke of Monmouth. The Duke of York 
was at last sent to govern Scotland. He hanged, shot, im- 
prisoned, and tortured them into either silence or outlawry. 

The Quakers are first heard of in England in the time of 
Cromwell. They did not believe in any forms and ceremonies 
whatever. They were like the Puritans in their desire to do 
away with the feasts, sports, and shows of the time, and in 
rejecting the government of the church by the king and 
bishops. They agreed with the Independents in wishing self- 
government for each congregation. But they were unlike 
all other sects in refusing to bear arms, to pay toward the sup- 
port of any church, or to observe the Sabbath by formal 
sermons and prayers. They refused to take oaths or to 
observe any forms of respect to superiors. They would not 
take off their hats in the presence of the king and of the 
judges in the courts. They believed in the "inner light," 
meaning by this that God tells every man, through his con- 
science, what is right and what he ought to do. 



1681] CHARLES II. 253 

The Puritans persecuted the Quakers severely. When 
Charles II. became king there were 4,000 of them in the 
jails. It was common to slit their noses, cut their ears, bore 
through their tongues with a hot iron, and whip them through 
the streets at the cart's tail. Their numbers increased rapidly 
in spite of this treatment, and in 1675 there were more than 
60,000 of them in England. Charles was disposed to favor 
them. He saw that they were quiet, industrious, and loyal 
people. 

Several New Colonies were founded in America during 
this reign. 

In 1663 the king gave the vast region of the Carolinas 
to a company of his friends. The Carolina settlers included 
Presbyterians harried out of the western counties of Scot- 
land; French Huguenots, or Protestants, driven out by the 
tyranny of Louis XIV.; Quakers from England; Irish from 
the West Indies, who had been exiled by Cromwell ; and other 
settlers who had been compelled to leave the older colonies. 
They resisted the strict rule that the proprietors tried to 
impose upon them, and in the end the proprietors gave up 
the struggle. 

We have seen (p. 246) that the Dutch possessions in 
America were seized by the English (1664). This territory 
was granted by Charles to the Duke of York, and the greater 
part of it became the colony of New York. 

New Jersey was granted by the Duke of York, the same 
year, to two of his friends, who divided it between them. 
Before long, however, both parts were bought by William 
Penn and other Quakers, who "put the power in the hands 
of the people." Owing to the excellent government and the 
religious freedom given by the Quakers, the colony filled up 
rapidly. 

Pennsylvania was given to William Penn in 1681, in pay- 
ment of a debt owed by Charles II. The next year Penn 



254 THE STUART KINGS [1681 

came over with three shiploads of colonists, and laid out 
the regular streets of Philadelphia. He also purchased from 
the Duke of York the " three lower counties on the Delaware," 
which became afterwards a separate colony. 

Death of Charles II. The king died of apoplexy in 1685. 
In his last moments he confessed his sins and received ex- 
treme unction as a Catholic. The queen sent to ask his par- 
don, but Charles replied that it was he who ought to ask 
hers. He lingered some time and apologized to the watchers 
about him, saying that he hoped they would excuse him for 
taking such a long time to die. The people expressed great 
sorrow at his death, and well they might, for though Charles 
was a bad king, his brother James, Duke of York, proved to 
be a worse one. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Why is this period called the Restoration? Compare it with Crom- 

well's time. Describe the reaction against Puritanism. 

2. How do you account for the severe laws passed by the Cavalier 

Parliament? Which of them do you think unwise? Why? 

3. How do you account for Charles's dealings with the King of France? 

Why were they bad policy? 

4. Which country do you think was right in the Dutch war? Why? 

5. What use did the king make of his power in the Declaration of 

Indulgence? Why was this power dangerous? 

6. How did the Covenanters originate? Why were they persecuted by 

the Stuarts? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Plague and the Pike. Church, Stories from English His- 

tory, pp. 483-503 ; Manning, Cherry and Violet. 

2. John Bunyan. Green, Short History (see index) ; Bunyan, The 

Pilgrim' 's Progress; Wright, Stories of English Literature, 
Vol. II., chap. IV. 

3. Return of Charles II. Scott, Woodstock. 

4. The Seizure of New Amsterdam. Gardiner, Student's History 

of England, p. 589 ; Bennett, Barnaby Lee. 

5. The So-called Popish Plot. Yonge, Cameos from English His- 

tory, VIII., pp. 10-24; Macaulay, History of England, I., pp. 
217 et seq. 



1685] JAMES II. 255 

B. The Revolution oe 1688. 

James II., 1685-1688. 

The New King had all the belief of his father and grand- 
father in his divine right to rule England according to his 
own will. The chief aim of his reign was to secure religious 
liberty for Catholics, and to rule independently of Parliament. 
His words and his actions had as little connection as those 
of Charles I. In his first speech to his council, he declared 
that he would rule according to the English law and support 
the English Church ; but the first act of his reign was to col- 
lect a customs duty not voted by Parliament, thus breaking 
the fundamental law of the kingdom, and before the crown 
was placed upon his head he had the service of the Catholic 
Church celebrated at Whitehall, for the first time in one 
hundred and twenty-seven years. 

Titus Oates, who had sworn away the lives of so many 
innocent men, now received his deserts. He was taken through 
the streets at the tail of a cart, and flogged with knotted 
cords till the "blood flowed in rivulets." He was then im- 
prisoned for life, and was made to stand in the pillory five 
times a year. 

The Persecution of the Covenanters was kept up with 
vigor in western Scotland, under the direction of Claver- 
house. Those who refused to forsake the Covenant were shot, 
hanged, or drowned. One girl of eighteen, Margaret Wilson, 
was fastened to a stake at low water in the Solway Firth, to be 
drowned by the rising tide. As the water rose to her head, 
she was taken out and asked if she would give up the Cove- 
nant and attend the Episcopal Church. " Never," she re- 
plied. " I am Christ's, let me go ! 9i She was put back, and 
the waves closed over her. 

The Parliament called in 1685 was strongly Tory, and 
voted the king the usual revenues for life. But a resolution 

NlVER 16. 



256 



THE STUART KINGS 



[1685 



passed by it to sustain the Church of England, and to 
enforce the laws against non-conformists, angered James and 
seemed to indicate a coming storm. 

The Argyle and Monmouth Rebellion grew out of the 
fight between the Whigs and the Tories about the Exclusion 
Bill. The Earl of Argyle was the leader of the clan of the 
Campbells, who upheld the Covenant, He was living in exile 
in Holland when James became king. He now came to 




Monmouth and King James. 



Scotland with a small army, hoping that the Scotch would 
join him in seizing the government. He then intended to 
join the Duke of Monmouth in England, and dethrone James. 
But the Scotch did not rise, and Argyle was captured and 
executed by the royal troops. 

In the mean time Monmouth had landed at Lyme Eegis 
on the Dorsetshire coast and was soon joined by five or six 
thousand of the country people. He boldly claimed the title 






1685] JAMES II. 257 

of king; but the nobility and gentlemen kept away from 
him. At Sedgemoor he attacked the royal army and was 
badly defeated. Many of his men were caught and hanged 
at once, and he himself was made prisoner. He was taken 
into the presence of James, and pleaded hard for mercy. But 
it appears that the king had admitted him only to induce him 
to disclose the names of others who had promised him assist- 
ance. When he found that Monmouth had nothing of im- 
portance to tell, he ordered him to execution. 

The " Bloody Assizes " of Jeffreys followed immediately 
upon this rebellion. Jeffreys was one of the king's judges, 
noted for wickedness and brutality. He had helped Charles 
II. take away the charters of the cities, and having no prin- 
ciples or religion of his own to support, was a servile creature 
of the king. He was now sent into the western counties to 
visit the " assize," or court, towns, and try the persons ac- 
cused of aiding Monmouth. 

The case of Alice Lisle shows the fearful brutality and 
cruelty of these trials. This lady, seventy years of age, was 
accused of concealing in her house two fugitives from Mon- 
mouth's army. It was not proved that she knew them to be 
rebels, nor that they ivere rebels. Three times the jury re- 
fused to bring in a verdict of guilty, but they were finally 
bullied by Jeffreys into submission, and Alice Lisle was put 
to death. 

Three hundred and twenty persons were executed, and their 
mutilated and dismembered bodies were fixed up along the 
highways and over the doors of town halls and churches, in 
the different villages where trials were held. Eight hundred 
and forty-one were sold into slavery under the broiling sun 
of the English West Indian possessions, there to labor until 
they died. When Jeffreys returned after his bloody work, 
James congratulated him on his great success and made him 
chancellor. 



258 THE STUART KINGS [1685 

The King and Parliament had agreed in putting down 
rebellion and in punishing the rebels. But James now 
thought himself strong enough to carry out his plans in regard 
to the Catholics. As he increased the army, he appointed 
officers belonging to that faith, and excused them from the 
requirements of the Test Act. The House of Commons be- 
came alarmed. King Louis XIV. of France had just revoked 
the Edict of Nantes, a law which protected French Prot- 
estants, and followed it up with a cruel persecution, which 
drove thousands into Germany, America, England, and Hol- 
land. If James were allowed to disobey the Test Act, it was 
thought, he might choose Catholics for all the offices, and 
finally treat Protestants as badly as the French king, whom 
he regarded as a model. James told the Parliament that he 
wanted money for a standing army, and would not change 
his appointments. The House of Commons passed a petition 
that he obey the Test Act, and to show that they did not 
approve his conduct, voted only half the money he asked. 

The Dispensing Power was now claimed by James to sup- 
port his actions. This was really the power to break the laws 
whenever he saw fit. When the judges declared that the 
king had no such power, he turned them out and appointed 
others, who decided that he did have it. This decision of 
course made him absolute, for if the king could set aside 
the laws as he pleased, there was no way to check him but 
by force of arms. 

The Declaration of Indulgence was next issued by the 
king, announcing that all people, Catholics and Protestant 
dissenters included, were free to worship as they pleased, and 
to hold office. Before publishing his Declaration, he tried 
to have the Test Act abolished legally by Parliament. But 
when he found, by talking with one member after another, 
that they would not do it, he dissolved Parliament. He 
thought that the dissenters would be so grateful to him that 



1688] JAMES II. 259 

they would support him against the established church. But 
the most of them feared that the Indulgence was only a trick 
to put Catholics in power, and declined, for patriotic reasons, 
to support the king in a measure that gave freedom of worship 
to themselves. 

The Church of England and the Colleges were now 
openly attacked by the king. He created an Ecclesiastical 
Commission court, and removed some of the clergy by bring- 
ing charges of misconduct against them, and put Catholics 
in their places. The universities at Oxford and Cambridge 
were under the control of the Church of England, and only 
members of that church could be teachers in the colleges 
there. James began to make these institutions into Eoman 
Catholic seminaries, by forcing the appointment of Catholics 
wherever possible. 

A Second Declaration of Indulgence was announced in 
April, 1688, and all the ministers were commanded to read it 
in their churches on two successive Sundays. In London 
only four clergymen obeyed, and their congregations got up 
and left the house as soon as the reading began. Seven 
bishops met and drew up a. petition to the king, asking him 
not to enforce his order. The king declared that the petition 
was rank rebellion, and the bishops were arrested and con- 
fined in the Tower. He brought a charge of seditious libel 
against them; that is, he accused them of publishing false 
statements which tended to stir up rebellion against the king. 

The Trial of the Bishops took place on June 29. The 
judges had been chosen by the king with the object of secur- 
ing a conviction. But would the jury bring in a verdict of 
guilty? 

At first three jurymen declared for the king, but before 
morning all had agreed on a verdict of not guilty. The 
crowds waiting in Westminster set up a shout, and the crowd 
in the street echoed it. James was that morning to review 



260 THE STUART KINGS [1688 

the army assembled near London. As he approached he 
heard a tremendous cheering and shouting. 

" What is that noise ? " he asked. 

" It is nothing," answered Lord Feversham, " only the 
soldiers shouting for the acquittal of the bishops." 

" Do you call that nothing ? " said he. " So much the 
worse for them." 

But it was the worse for James. He had succeeded in 
losing the friendship of nine tenths of his people, and even 
of his own children and relatives. They waited patiently, 
however, thinking that it could not be many years before 
his daughter Mary would succeed him. 

James's first wife having died, he had married again, and 
two days after the acquittal of the bishops it was announced 
that a son was born to him. This boy would of course be 
brought up in the Catholic faith, and when he grew up he 
would probably do exactly as his father had clone. Besides, 
a story was noised abroad that the child was not the king's 
at all, but a baby that had been procured somewhere and 
smuggled into the palace. 

The English Revolution. William of Orange (p. 249), 
the nephew and son-in-law of James, was now invited by many 
English nobles to become king, and to save the liberties and 
rights of the people. There would be no trouble about this, 
they said, for the whole nation was ready to give him a hearty 
welcome. So William collected a fleet and army m Holland, 
and on the 5th of November he landed on the English coast. 

James started with his army to attack the invaders; but 
his soldiers began to desert him ; the bishops he had appointed 
would not help him ; and when he reached his house he found 
that his daughter Anne and her husband had fled. " Now, 
God help me ! " cried the king. " My own children have for- 
saken me." Deserted by everybody, he tried to escape to 
France, but was caught by some fishermen and brought back. 



1689] JAMES II. 261 

William really wanted him to run away. James did not 
know this, and requested to be allowed to go to Kochester. 
Permission was gladly granted. On the 18th of December 
he rose in the middle of the night and rode to the coast, where 
he found a ship bound for France. He finally reached the 
French court, where the great Louis received him with the 
highest respect and kindness. He never again set foot on 
the soil of England. With the general approval of the 
nation, William called for an election and a meeting of 
Parliament. 

The Throne was Declared Vacant by the House of Com- 
mons on account of the misgovernment and flight of the 
king. To this the Lords agreed, and William and Mary 
were elected joint sovereigns of England. The idea that the 
king received his power directly from God, and could there- 
fore defy the will of the people, was overthrown with James ; 
and the other notion, that the people are the source of power, 
was established by the election of William and Mary. 

The American Colonies had been left largely to them- 
selves until the time of James II. As Edmund Burke said of 
them, "they flourished through the neglect of England." 
But James was jealous of their growth and prosperity, and 
considered them a nursery for rebels. He sent Sir Edmund 
Andros over in 1686 to take away the charters of the New 
England colonies and unite them under one government. 
Andros was ordered also to establish the Episcopal Church, to 
suspend the writ of habeas corpus, to levy taxes without 
asking the people, to take charge of the printing presses, to 
abolish all the colonial legislatures, and to take possession of 
all unoccupied lands for himself and his friends. But James 
did not rule long enough -to provoke a revolution in the 
colonies. The revolution that he provoked at home relieved 
them of Andros, and under William and Mary they got their 
liberties back without fighting. 



262 ORANGE [1689 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How did James lose the confidence of his people? 

2. Explain the attempts made to dethrone him. How did they result? 

3. What was the dispensing power? On what ground did James 

claim it? 

4. How did the Revolution of 1688 affect the government of England? 

The church? 

5. Why was the case of the seven bishops important? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Judge Jeffreys. Macaulay, History of England, I., pp. 590-611 ; 

Yonge, Cameos from English History, VIII. 

2. The Seven Bishops. Creighton, Stories from English History, 

Ch. XLIII. ; Macaulay, History of England, II., pp. 317-357; 
Green, Short History, p. 672. 

3. Alice Lisle. Yonge, Cameos from English History, VIII., pp. 

82-83 ; Macaulay, History of England, I., pp. 591-596. 

4. The Covenanters. Green, Short History, 531-532, 551, 621, 632 ; 

Yonge, Cameos from English History, VII., VIII. 

5. Monmouth's Rebellion. Macaulay, Histdry of England, I., 

541-579 ; Besant, For Faith and Freedom. 



C. The New Order of Things. 
William III., 1689-1702, and Mary II., 1689-1694. 

A Declaration of the Rights and liberties of the people 
was drawn up by the Parliament, and agreed to by William 
and Mary before they were crowned. James had broken down 
many of the old liberties, and his judges had said that he 
had a right to do so. Then, a revolution had taken place; 
that is, one royal house had been driven out, and a new one 
set up. It was necessary that the new rulers should agree 
to abide by the old laws and customs of England. 

The new Declaration provided that the king should never 
set aside the laws without the consent of Parliament; that a 
standing army should not be kept ; that the election of mem- 
bers of Parliament should be free from interference, and 
that Parliament should be frequently assembled ; that Wil- 






1689] 



WILLIAM HI. 



263 



liam and Mary should reign as joint sovereigns, with the 
practical care of the government in the hands of William; 
that if either William or Mary died the other should con- 
tinue to reign ; that if they left no children, the crown should 
descend to Anne, the sister of Mary, and to her heirs; and 




Coronation of William and Mary. 

that no Roman Catholic, or person marrying a Roman Cath- 
olic, should be capable of receiving the crown of England. 
These provisions were afterwards made into the " Bill of 
Rights." This bill is the third great document that goes to 
make up the English constitution. Magna Charta, the Pe- 
tition of Right, and the Bill of Rights form what Lord 



264 ORANGE [1689 

Chatham called the "Bible of the English Constitution." 
And according to these three charters England is now gov- 
erned. 

A Toleration Act was passed which allowed all sects, 
except Catholics and Unitarians, to worship in their own 
churches. The oath of allegiance and supremacy (p. 169) 
was required of all clergy holding places in the Established 
Church. There were many among them who held that James 
was still king. Accordingly, about four hundred refused to 
take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary. For a 
long time afterwards they were known as "non-jurors." 

Those among the laymen who still held to James were 
known as Jacobites, a word derived from Jacobus, the Latin 
word for James. There were many who disliked the grave 
and simple manners of the new king, who was also a little 
too fond of Dutchmen to please many. But William tried 
to rule both Holland and England fairly; he would not take 
the side of any party, but did his best to create good feeling 
and patriotic harmony among all classes. 

The Mutiny Act was a law which gave the king power 
to enforce discipline in the army for only six months or 
one year at a time. The act has been renewed from year 
to year ever since ; but if it were not renewed, a soldier could 
desert or disobey the king's officers without much danger of 
punishment. 

A few years later Parliament adopted the plan of voting 
the king a revenue for only one year at a time. This, with 
the plan of the Mutiny Acts, has compelled the king to call 
the Parliament together often, and so enabled them to keep 
a close oversight of his conduct and of the condition of the 
country. In fact, it has made Parliament supreme. 

The War of the Palatinate. Before William was fairly 
settled in his new kingdom, the French king had begun war 
against him. The Protestants of Europe, headed by William, 



1689] WILLIAM III. 265 

had formed an alliance against France after the repeal of the 
Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. Louis began war by plunder- 
ing the Palatinate and murdering thousands of Protestants 
there. He also sent an army to Ireland to help the deposed 
King James in regaining his throne. There was also some 
fighting in Scotland. 

Killiecrankie. In Scotland most of the people favored 
William and Mary, and the Scottish Parliament elected them 
to the throne in place of James. The Scotch Highlanders 
were the- chief adherents of the deposed king. Claverhouse, 
now Viscount Dundee, who had been a hunter of Covenanters 




English Musket. 



in the former reign, now gathered a. large army of the High- 
land clans in support of James. William's army, under 
General Mackay, met them in the steep mountain pass of 
Killiecrankie. The Scotch were stationed at the top of the 
hill. As the English troops struggled up to attack them the 
Highlanders fired one volley, and then, throwing down their 
muskets, rushed upon the English with their broadswords. 
The musket in use among the English at that time was 
changed into a pike by fixing a dagger in the end of the 
barrel. It was an awkward contrivance, and before the dag- 
ger could be adjusted the Scotch were upon them with wild 
yells and flashing weapons. Mackay was defeated, but drew 
off his army without severe loss. Dundee was killed in this 
battle, and the clans, having no capable leader, soon returned 
to their homes. 

Afterwards the Highland chiefs were offered pardon and 
a sum of money if they would take the oath of allegiance 
to King William, and agree to live peaceably in the future. 



266 ORANGE £1692 

As James had by this time been defeated and driven out of 
Ireland, they were willing to do this; but to show their in- 
dependence they put off taking the oath as long as possible. 

Maclan of Glencoe was an old man, chief of the clan 
of MacDonald. A proclamation had been issued that all who 
did not appear before a certain day would be regarded as 
public enemies. Maclan was by mistake a few days late. 
He might still have been pardoned, had not the affairs of 
Scotland been in the hands of men who were his enemies. 
They sent such a report of the case to William that he con- 
sented to the order for rooting out "that set of thieves at 
Glencoe." 

Glencoe was a picturesque little valley in the western 
Highlands. Here lived the clan of MacDonald, numbering 
perhaps five hundred people. A company of soldiers was sent 
among them to ask for quarters, pretending that there was 
not room for them at their fort near by. For twelve days 
they lived with the clan, having food, drink, and shelter with- 
out payment. Their commander, whose niece was married to 
the chiefs son, lived in the most friendly way with the family 
of Maclan, though at the time he had in his pocket a letter 
which ordered him "to cut off the clan, root and branch." 
At five o'clock one morning, while it was yet dark, the sol- 
diers surrounded the cabins in which they had feasted and 
made merry the night before. The unfortunate people were 
dragged out and murdered; many who tried to escape were 
shot down. It had been planned to have a strong force come 
from the fort and cut off the fugitives, but it arrived too 
late, and three fourths of the clan escaped in the darkness. 
But their huts were burned and their cattle driven off. It was 
in the middle of winter and many of the fugitives were starved 
and frozen. Some returned to their ruined village and again 
built up homes in the little valley. They told the story of 
Glencoe to their children, and it has come down to us as the 



1689] WILLIAM III. 267 

one blot on the reign of William, and as the most terrible 
tale in the tribal wars of Scotland. 

Richard Talbot, Earl of Tyrconnel, had been sent by 
James II. to rule Ireland. He had been ordered to recruit 
a Catholic army and be ready to assist the king. So now, 
in Ireland, the supporters of James were stronger than their 
opponents. Those who favored William were called " Orange- 
men," a name which still clings to the Irish Protestants. 

James landed in Ireland with some French troops in the 
spring of 1689. War broke out, and Tyrconnel repeated the 
terrible scenes of 1641. The Protestant settlements were de- 
stroyed and the people massacred. Fifty thousand cattle and 
400,000 sheep were killed, and much land was made desert. 
Much property was taken from the Protestants by the Irish 
Parliament and given to Catholics. A great act of attainder 
was passed against two thousand Englishmen. All of these 
that did not surrender themselves to James at Dublin within 
a certain length of time were to be executed without a trial; 
provided, of course, James could catch them, which at one 
time seemed more than possible. 

The Protestant refugees had gathered in Londonderry and 
another town in Ulster. The forces of James besieged Lon- 
donderry and cut off all supplies of food. For one hundred 
and five days the siege lasted. All wholesome food was gone. 
Horses, rats, and dogs were eaten. There seemed to be noth- 
ing to do but surrender or starve. The town was approached 
from the sea. only by a river, which the Irish had blocked with 
a heavy raft. For days and days the ships sent by William 
lay outside the raft, not daring to break it. At last they 
received positive orders to relieve the town. One ship was 
headed straight toward the raft and broke it; the ship was 
wrecked, but the other vessels sailed through and brought 
food to the starving inhabitants. 

The Quarrels of Parties in Parliament had prevented 



268 ORANGE [1690 

William from taking prompt action against James; and it 
was not until he threatened to resign the throne and return 
to Holland that the wrangling Whigs and Tories came to 
their senses. A new Parliament was called, and provision 
was made for war. 

The Battle of the Boyne (1690). William led an army 
of 30,000 men into Ireland. James had drawn up his army 
on rising ground south of the river Boyne (map, p. 232), 
across which the English had to advance to attack him. The 
two armies were about evenly matched. The river was skill- 
fully crossed and the battle bravely won by William's army. 
William crossed at the head of his troops, receiving a wound 
in the arm; but the Irish were disgusted at the cowardly 
conduct of James, who ran away before the battle began. 
The Irish army was badly defeated, but the French covered 
their retreat and only 1,500 men were lost. The war was 
continued until the next year, when the Irish were finally 
routed with terrible loss at Aghrim, 1,000 men being mas- 
sacred in the retreat. The rest took refuge in Limerick, 
where they were forced to surrender. All who wished were 
allowed to retire to France, and about 10,000 officers and 
men did so. 

Two Naval Battles were fought during this struggle in 
Ireland. The first one at Beachy Head was lost to the 
French through the treacherous retreat of the English ad- 
miral Torrington, a Jacobite. Two years later occurred the 
battle of La Hogue, off the northern coast of France. Here 
a fleet of forty-four French ships met a combined Dutch 
and English fleet of ninety. But it was not thought by 
the French that the English would fight, as Admiral Eussell 
was known to sympathize with King James. But the con- 
duct of that fallen monarch in Ireland, and the threatened in- 
vasion of England by France, had displeased his best friends, 
and they decided to abandon him. The English did fight, 



1695] WILLIAM III. 269 

and out of the French fleet only twelve ships escaped; these 
were pursued under the very walls of the fort and burned 
before the eyes of James himself, who saw in their destruc- 
tion the end of his hope for a successful invasion of England. 
He passed the rest of his life in France, dying there shortly 
before the close of William's reign. 

The French defeat on the sea, however, was offset by 
several victories which Louis won over the Protestant allies 
on the continent. For years it had been the boast of the 
French that they had not lost a battle or a city. But in 
1695 William took from the French the city of Namur with 
its garrison of 12,000, though an army of 80,000 Frenchmen 
came to raise the siege. 

Queen Mary Died of smallpox in 1694. She was of a 
gentle nature and was greatly beloved by all. " I was the 
happiest man on earth," said William, " and now I am the 
most miserable." The Greenwich Hospital, on the banks of 
the Thames, is her memorial. This structure had been begun 
by Charles II. as a palace, but left unfinished. After the 
naval battles with France, Mary wished to complete the 
building as a hospital for wounded sailors. This was done 
after her death, and it still stands the most fitting monument 
of a queen who loved to comfort the unfortunate. 

The Freedom of the Press was established during the 
period of this French war. Before that, Parliament had 
from time to time forbidden the printing of any book or 
newspaper in England without a royal license; but now 
Parliament refused to renew the licensing act, so men became 
free to print as well as speak their thoughts freely — a priv- 
ilege which continues to be the safeguard of, liberty and a 
check upon wrongdoing. 

The Bank of England. The wars led to a large debt 
to the money lenders and bankers. Those who lent money 
to the government were now formed into a banking company, 



270 



ORANGE 



[1694 




which grew into the Bank of England, the most famous 

financial institution in the world. 

The Money was Recoined during this reign. Much of 

it was worn out and mutilated by clipping. The coins had 

been made with 
smooth edges, so that 
with a sharp knife 
one could cut a strip 
of metal from a coin 
and it would not be 
noticed. But the new 
coins were made with 
milled edges, in order 

The Present Bank of England. that no metal Could 

be cut off without showing. The public sent in their old 
money to the government, and received in exchange fresh 
new coins of full weight. 

A Plot to Assassinate the King was discovered in 1696. 
Forty of the Jacobites were concerned in it. If it succeeded 
a French army was to land in England and attempt to 
restore King James. The conspirators had planned to con- 
ceal themselves along a road by which William would return 
from a hunt. At a signal they were to spring out and shoot 
him, before any one could help him. The detection of this 
plot alarmed the English, and they took careful measures to 
protect the king. Some of the conspirators were taken and 
executed. 

The Peace of Ryswick, made with Louis in 1697, con- 
cluded the French war. William was acknowledged to be 
the rightful King of England, and the cause of James was 
given up. The new Cathedral of St. Paul's had just been 
completed by Sir Christopher Wren, and William at the head 
of a great triumphal procession entered the church, where a 
solemn thanksgiving was rendered for the return of peace. 



1701] WILLIAM III. 271 

The army was now partly disbanded, and the Dutch guards, 
who had served faithfully, were, much against the king's 
will, sent back to Holland. 

In America this war was called King William's War. It 
consisted in a border war between the English settlers of 
New York, and New England, and the French and Indians. 

Schenectady in New York and several other outlying towns 
were taken and burned by the French, and the Indians were 
allowed to scalp and murder the inhabitants. The New Eng- 
enders captured Port Eoyal in Acadia, but were obliged to 
give it back by the treaty of Eyswick. 

A Dispute about the Spanish Succession soon led to 
fresh trouble with France. The old King of Spain was 
childless. As his eldest sister was the wife of Louis of 
France, their son was, according to the French claim, heir to 
the throne of Spain. But William and the other kings of 
Europe were not disposed to allow Louis to become so 
powerful, and they threatened war unless he would give up 
the claim. Louis was not yet ready for another war, so he 
yielded, and signed a treaty by which a part of Spain's terri- 
tory was to go to France, and the rest of it, with the crown, 
to the Archduke Charles of Austria. This treaty Louis re- 
fused to carry out when the news came that the king of 
Spain was dead, and that he had left his throne to the grand- 
son of Louis. " There are no longer any Pyrenees !" he ex- 
claimed triumphantly, meaning that now France and Spain 
were one nation. The Spanish Netherlands, which he had 
so long fought for, would become his, and the union of the 
French and Spanish power would make him able to defy all 
the rest of Europe. 

It was not long before Louis showed his defiance of Eng- 
land. He had acknowledged William as the rightful King 
of England in the Treaty of Eyswick. But in 1701, when 
James II. died in Paris, Louis immediately declared that 

NlVER 17. 



272 ORANGE [1701 

James's son, James Edward, was the rightful king, and prom- 
ised to help him in getting the throne. 

Act of Settlement. The Bill of Eights had provided for 
the disposition of the crown, but as Anne's children all died, 
an Act of Settlement was passed in 1701 providing that at 
her death the crown should go to the Electress Sophia of 
Hanover, granddaughter of James I., and her heirs. The 
object of this act was to secure a Protestant succession. It 
was just after this that news came of James II.'s death and 
the declaration of Louis. The haughty insolence of the 
French, in presuming to appoint a king of England, was 
more than the English people could endure. Though they 
were half disposed to allow Louis to have his own way in 
Spain, a general demand for war was aroused by his support 
of another Stuart in claiming the throne of England. 

A Grand Alliance was made by William against France. 
Holland, Denmark, Sweden, England, and Austria combined 
to keep Louis out of the Netherlands, and to compel an 
agreement that the crowns of France and Spain should never 
be united. The object of the alliance was to preserve the 
balance of power. 

A new Parliament, called in 1701, began preparation for 
war, in the midst of which William's horse stumbled one day 
over a molehill and fell with him. The king's collar bone 
was broken, and from this and other injuries he died. The 
nation, which had learned to respect alid love him, mourned at 
his death. A statue of the king in one of the corridors of the 
Bank of England bears this inscription : " To the memory of 
the best of princes, William of Orange, founder of the Bank 
of England." Louis XIV. rejoiced, for he thought now that 
his worst enemy was gone. And the Jacobites, in their secret 
meetings, drank many a toast to the "little gentlemen in 
black velvet" whose earthwork had caused King William's 
death. 



1702] ANNE 273 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. What circumstances gave rise to each of the three great docu- 

ments of the English constitution? 

2. What was the object of the Act of Settlement? 

3. What interest did the Irish and Scotch have in supporting James? 

Why did the French king support him? 

4. Compare Tyrconnel's massacres in Ireland with those of Cromwell. 

5. What caused the rise of the Jacobites and Non-jurors? 

6. Why did the French king break the treaty of Ryswick? 



TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Story of Glencoe. Colby, Sources of English History, pp. 

220-222 ; Scott, Tales of a Grandfather, Ch. LVIII. 

2. The Battle of the Boyne. Hale, Fall of the Stuarts, pp. 181- 

186 ; Yonge, Cameos from English History, VIII., pp. 135-148. 

3. Battle of La Hogue. Gardiner, Student's History, p. 658 ; Hale, 

Fall of the Stuarts, 

4. Killieceankie. Rolfe, Tales from Scottish History, pp. 130-134; 

Hale, Fall of the Stuarts, pp. 165-168. 



D. The War Against French Domination. 
Anne, 1702-17 14. 

The Accession of the New Queen made no change in 
the conduct of the affairs of government. Anne was well 
liked by the English people, and the title of " Good Queen 
Anne " was given her. She stood up for the rule of the Eng- 
lish Church and disliked all dissenters. The Tory party 
wanted to keep dissenters out of public offices, while the 
Whigs were willing to admit them if they would come oc- 
casionally to the established church. This was called " occa- 
sional conformity." 

Though Anne had a kindly disposition, she stupidly be- 
lieved in the old Stuart idea of the " divine right of kings," 
and in the superstition that the sovereign could cure people of 
scrofula, or " king's evil," by touching them. This practice 
began with Edward the Confessor, whose great piety, it is 



274 



THE HOUSE OF STUART 



[1702 



said, enabled him to effect miraculous cures. But Charles II. 
also, who was not noted for piety, "touched for the king's 
evil." The practice was to bring the sick, one at a time, 
before the king, who laid his hands upon them while the 
bishop repeated the words, "And he laid his hands upon 
them and healed them." Queen Anne was the last sovereign 
to observe this custom. 

The War of the Spanish Succession filled most of Queen 
Anne's reign. The armies of the Grand Alliance were under 




Spanish Netheklands about 1700. 

the command of John Churchill, Earl and later Duke of 
Marlborough, who had been recommended by William as the 
ablest man for the work. Churchill had been a friend of 
James II., and held a command in the army when William 
landed in England. Like many of James's friends, he de- 
serted him for the Protestant prince. He had fought in 
Ireland and the Netherlands for King William, but when 
things were going badly on the continent he had thought of 
going over to James again, and treacherously informed the 
French of an intended attack on Brest (map, p. 164). The 



1704] 



ANNE 



275 



commander made such good preparation that the whole Eng- 
lish force of 700 men was killed or captured. 

In spite of this treason, William took Marlborough again 
into confidence, and left to him the conduct of the war, 
already begun when Anne became queen. Prince Eugene of 
Savoy was his able assistant, and commanded the troops of 
Portugal, Savoy, and Austria, while Marlborough was at the 
head of the English, Dutch, and some Germans. 

Just before the beginning of the war, Louis had seized 
many forts and towns in the Spanish Netherlands and forti- 
fied them. This threatened Hol- 
land with invasion. The first 
two years of the war were spent 
in recapturing enough of these 
towns to secure Holland. Mean- 
while Bavaria joined France, 
and in 1704 a French army 
gathered there along the Danube, 
preparing for the conquest of 
Austria. 

Blenheim. Marlborough now 
led his army to Bavaria, and met 
the enemy at the village of Blenheim, on the Danube. Keep- 
ing the French busy with an attack on the fortified village, he 
led in person a tremendous cavalry charge against the center. 
Their army was cut in two and terribly defeated, losing more 
than half their number in killed, wounded, and captured. 

It was the first time the armies of Louis had met defeat. 
For half a century he had broken treaties and oaths, and 
lorded it over weaker nations at his pleasure. He had tried 
to force two kings on the English people, and a third one 
had been his paid servant. No wonder that the English 
rejoiced over his downfall, and rewarded his conqueror. A 
large estate was given to Marlborough by Parliament, and 




Battle of Blenheim. 



276 



THE HOUSE OF STUART 



[1704 



a great palace was built for him, appropriately named Blen- 
heim, which still remains in the possession of his descendants. 




Blenheim. 



The battle of Blenheim drove the French across the Ehine 
and out of Germany. They now gathered their armies in 
the Spanish Netherlands for the defense of their garrisons 
there. 

The Year of Victories (1706) began with the battle of 
Eamillies. The cavalry again won the day, and the French 
lost 15,000 men. Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and other towns 
were taken in quick succession, and the power of France in 
the Netherlands was broken. In 1708 and 1709 the French 
made attempts to regain what they had lost. Marlborough 
beat them again at Oudenarde and Malplaquet ; and, defeated 
and disheartened, they abandoned the Netherlands and were 
ready to make peace. 

English Success in Spain had kept pace with their vie- 



1710] ANNE 277 

tories elsewhere. The Spanish fort at Gibraltar was cap- 
tured in 1704. The high rock on which the fort stood, is 
connected with the mainland by a narrow neck of land. 
While the Spanish were celebrating a religious festival, the 
English clambered up the rock and found only 150 men on 
guard, who were easily conquered. Gibraltar was held, and 
still remains a British stronghold, guarding the strait and 
the highway to the Indian empire. 

An Act of Union between England and Scotland was 
arranged in 1707. When James I. became King of England, 
each country kept its own parliament and its own church. 
There were separate laws for each kingdom. The Scotch 
were not allowed to sell goods in England without paying a 
heavy duty. It was now agreed that Scotland should be rep- 
resented in the English Parliament by sixteen peers and 
forty-five commoners, that the name of the united countries 
should be Great Britain, and that the cross of St. Andrew, 
the patron saint of Scotland, should be placed upon the 
flag with that of St. George, the patron saint of England. 
Free trade was established between the two countries. 

Government by Political Parties began in England in 
the reign of Queen Anne. James IJ. was the last king who 
tried to rule without consulting the wishes of the people. 
After his time, the people gradually attached themselves to 
the two parties which had arisen out of the dispute over the 
Exclusion Bill (p. 250). The Tories were the High Church 
party. They believed in the rule of bishops, in strengthening 
the power of the king, and in keeping dissenters out of office. 
The Whigs we may call the Low Church party. They favored 
dissenters, and wished to strengthen the power of Parliament 
and weaken that of the king. They favored the Grand 
Alliance against France, and wished to unite with the Prot- 
estants on the continent against the Catholic powers. But 
as the war dragged on from year to year, the Tories grew 



278 THE HOUSE OF STUART [1710 

more and more eager to stop it. They did not care whether 
a French prince or an Austrian prince sat on the throne of 
Spain. They were content that Louis had been curbed in 
his attack on the Netherlands. 

Marlborough was in favor of continuing the war, because 
it had brought him honors, fame, and wealth. The queen, 
although a Tory, was under the influence of the wife of 
Marlborough, who was her most intimate friend. It is said 
that this lady, whose name was Sarah Jennings before her 
marriage, ruled in all court matters, from the trimming on 
the queen's dress to the management of wars and alliances. 
So presuming did she become that Anne dismissed her from 
court and found another lady, one Mrs. Masham, to take 
her place (1710). 

Cabinet Government by the ruling party in Parliament 
grew up at this time. Both William and Anne had tried 
to select ministers from both parties, but they found that 
men of different ways of thinking could not work well to- 
gether. They were therefore obliged to select a ministry 
entirely from the strongest party. The chief ministers at 
that time were the First Lord of the Treasury, the Chancellor 
of the Exchequer, the Lord Chancellor (the presiding officer 
of the House of Lords and the legal adviser of the Cabinet), 
the First Lord of the Admiralty, and various secretaries. 
Government by a ministry took on its complete form and 
received the name of u Cabinet government " in the next 
reign (p. 284). 

The Case of Dr. Sacheverell strengthened the power of 
the Tories. This man was a preacher whom nowadays one 
would call a " crank." He preached sermons advocating the 
old idea that it was unlawful and unchristian to resist the 
king or queen of the country. He also called the Whigs 
hard names and accused them of wishing to overfhrow the 
English Church. The Whigs were very angry at this, and 



1714] ANNE 279 

impeached him before the House of Lords, had him suspended 
from office, and had his sermons burned by the common 
hangman. The people thought that Sacheverell had been 
punished unjustly, and the Whigs lost favor everywhere. 

The Election of 1710 resulted in a strong Tory Parlia- 
ment, which forced the selection of a strong Tory ministry. 
This ministry sent a man to Louis to ask if he wanted to make 
peace. " It was," said Louis's prime minister, " like asking 
a dying man if he wished to be cured." 

Queen Anne's War, as the war of the Spanish Succes- 
sion was called in America, was accompanied by much the 
same sort of fighting as the previous war (p. 271). An 
English expedition against Quebec resulted in total failure, 
with shipwreck and loss of life; but New England soldiers 
captured and held Acadia (Nova Scotia). 

The Peace of Utrecht was signed by France and the 
allies in 1713. Louis's grandson, Philip, was allowed to keep 
the throne of Spain, but with the agreement that he should 
never be made King of France. The Spanish parts of Italy 
and of the Netherlands were given to Austria. England kept 
Gibraltar and Acadia. Louis agreed to acknowledge the 
Protestant succession in England, and to drive James 
Edward, the " Pretender," as he was called, out of France. 

Anne Died in 1714, the last Stuart sovereign to reign in 
England. Her husband, Prince George of Denmark, had 
died several years before. He was a coarse, stupid man, 
unfit for public office, and never had anything to do with 
the government. Their children all died young. There were 
still many Tories who would have been glad to have the son 
of James II. for the next king. If he had consented to be- 
come a Protestant, he might have had the throne; but this 
he refused to do, and the Act of Settlement was carried out. 
The Electress of Hanover being now dead, her son became 
George I. of England. 



280 THE STUART KINGS [1603 

The Chief Characteristic of the Stuart and Orange- Stuart 
periods is the growing importance of the people. The in- 
crease of wealth, due to the growth of trade and manufactur- 
ing, brought the middle classes into prominence. 

Woolen Cloths were still the leading manufacture; 
nearly twenty different kinds were made. But silk, linen, 
and cotton became important in the reign of James I. The 
French Huguenots were skillful silk weavers. So many of 
them came to England after the revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes (p. 258), that within ten years no more silk was im- 
ported, while before the edict was revoked £200,000 was spent 
annually for French silks. 

Mining became an important industry; coal, iron, tin, 
copper, and salt were produced and sold abroad. The great 
need of the time was suitable machinery for carrying on the 
operations of manufacturing and mining. All work was 
done by hand. England had to wait another century for 
the steam engine. 

Trade. This extract from the " Spectator" (p. 281) 
refers to the extensive trade which had grown up in England. 
" Our Ships are laden with the Harvest of every Climate ; 
our Tables are stored with Spices and Oils and Wine; our 
Eooms are filled with Pyramids of China, and adorned with 
the Workmanship of Japan; our Morning's Draught comes 
to us from the remotest Corners of the Earth; we repair 
our Bodies by the Drugs of America, and repose ourselves 
under Indian Canopies. My Friend, Sir Andrew, calls the 
Vineyards of France our Gardens; the Spice Islands our 
Hot-beds; the Persians our Silk-weavers; and the Chinese 
our Potters." 

Trade, discovery, and an acquaintance with many foreign 
countries had greatly contributed to the intelligence of the 
people. Newspapers and books were cheap and plentiful 
enough to come within the reach of the majority. 



1714] INDUSTRY, LITERATURE 281 

The Desire for News was first provided for by the issue of 
pamphlets by the printers and stationers. In 1622 a weekly 
issue of news was begun in London by Nathaniel Butter and 
Thomas Archer. In 1641 " The Grand Eemonstrance " was 
published and hawked about the streets by newsboys. It was 
the first "extra" on record. Later the papers were called 
" Mercuries." The first daily newspaper, the " Daily 
Courant," appeared in Queen Anne's time. The most fa- 
mous paper, however, was the " Spectator," edited by Eichard 
Steele and Joseph Addison. It was not a newspaper, but a 
kind of society journal, criticising the follies and vices of 
the time. 

The coffeehouses were favorite places of meeting for the 
exchange of news and gossip. They were the clubs of that 
time. In 1671 they were closed as "seditious places," but 
were reopened shortly afterward on the promise of the keepers 
not to allow their guests to talk too much about the govern- 
ment. 

The Literature of Anne's Time is next in importance 
to that of the Elizabethan Age. Addison was the finest 
writer of prose, and Alexander Pope the most exact writer 
of poetry. The authors of the time prided themselves on 
being very elegant and exact in their speaking and writing. 
Jonathan Swift wrote " Gulliver's Travels," a tale of a voy- 
age to the lands of the Giants and of the Lilliputians, holding 
up to ridicule the politics of the time. De Foe's " Eobinson 
Crusoe " was printed a few years after the death of Anne. 
" Gulliver's Travels " and " Eobinson Crusoe " are the be- 
ginning of the kind of literature called fiction, meaning 
accounts of things imagined to have happened. 

Encouragement to Artists was given by Charles II., the 
first King of England who understood and appreciated pic- 
tures. Eubens and Yan Dyck, two great Flemish artists, 
lived for a time at his court. Eubens decorated the king's 



282 



THE STUART KINGS 



[1603 



palace of Whitehall, and Van Dyck painted portraits of the 
king and queen and their children, as well as of the nobles 
and ladies of the court. 

Great Progress in Science was made during the rule of 
the Stuart kings. Bacon's methods of observation and ex- 
periment (p. 201) were vigor- 
ously followed up. The Koyal 
Society was incorporated by 
Charles II. in 1662. Its object 
was to advance experimental 
science. The king himself did 
experiments, and was consid- 
ered a good chemist. Eobert 
Boyle improved the air pump, 
and made the important dis- 
covery that gases, like the air, 
expand and contract according 
to the pressure put upon them. 
Great achievements were 
also made in astronomy. Ed- 
mund Halley first calculated 
the path of a comet which appeared in 1682. He said the 
comet would come again in 1759 and 1835; sure enough it 
did. Isaac Newton, however, is the greatest name of this 
period. Galileo and Copernicus had said that the planets 
revolve about the sun. Tycho Brahe and Kepler discovered 
the laws of motion governing the planets. But Sir Isaac 
Newton discovered the law of gravitation, the force that holds 
the planets in their places and keeps our bodies and other 
objects on the surface of the earth. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How was England connected with the War of the Spanish Suc- 
cession? How did the war result in America? How did it 
affect the balance of power? 




Sir Isaac Newton. 



1714] 



SCIENCE 283 



2. What were the terms of the Act of Union between England and 

Scotland? How did it benefit both countries? 

3. Compare the literature of Anne's time with that of the Elizabethan 

age. 

4. Discuss the career and character of Marlborough. 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Battle of Blenheim. Henty, The Cornet of Horse; Fitch- 

ett, Fights for the Flag, pp. 16-32. 

2. Whigs and Tories. Macaulay, History of England, I., 240; 

Hale, Fall of the Stuarts, pp. 31-34. 

3. Queen Anne's Favorites. Strickland, Queens of England 

(abridged edition). 

4. Scientific Progress. Green, Short History, pp. 610-611. 



X. THE HOUSE OF HANOVEB. 1 

A. Forty Years op Progress. 
George L, 1714-1727. 

The New King was in no hurry to leave his German 
province of Hanover, where he had lived happily for fifty- 
four years. He was an honest, well-meaning man, but coarse 
and lacking in intelligence. He could not speak English, and 
the government of England by a king and a Parliament was 
a complete mystery to him. He had no choice, therefore, 
but to intrust the management of affairs to his cabinet, which 
was made up entirely of Whigs. 

The Rule of the Cabinet. It had always been the cus- 
tom of the English kings to choose from the Parliament a 
select body of men known as the " privy council." In this 
council there would always be a few men especially trusted, 
and William III. made a practice of calling these favored 

iTHE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 

George I. (1714-1727) (p. 203) 

George II. (1727-1760) 

Frederick, Prince of Wales, 

.George III. (1760-1820) 
J 

George IV. William IV. Edward, Duke of Kent Ernest Augustus, 
(1820-1830) (1830-1837) | Duke of Cumberland, 

Victoria (1837-1901) and later King of 

Hanover 

Edward VII. (1901 — ) 

I 
George Frederick 

I 

Edward Albert Albert Frederick Henry William George Edward 

284 



1716] GEORGE I. 285 

few, including the chief ministers, into the king's " cabinet/' 
or private room, to discuss matters that they did not wish to 
talk about before the whole council. These came to be called 
the " cabinet council," or the Cabinet. The rule of the 
Cabinet had been growing more and more independent of the 
sovereign. It became entirely so in the time of George I., 
who preferred spending his time in social amusements to at- 
tending the meetings of his Cabinet. 

Some one had to be chosen to take the king's place in pre- 
siding over the Cabinet meetings. To this man the title of 
premier, or prime minister, was afterwards given. The first 
man to bear this title was Sir Eobert Walpole, who became 
the head of the Cabinet in 1721 (p. 288). 

The Jacobites had allowed the new king to be crowned 
without making any trouble. But the exclusion of Tories 
from office, and the belief that the Whigs would repeal 
the laws against dissenters, made the English High Church 
party angry. In Scotland the Stuarts could always find sup,- 
port, and the Earl of Mar raised a strong force in the interest 
of the " Pretender," James Edward, who caused himself to 
be proclaimed king. Mar sent 1,500 men into England, 
while he himself headed about 10,000 against the Whig leader, 
Argyle, in Scotland (1715). But the 1,500 men, together 
with some English Jacobites, were compelled to surrender at 
Preston, in Lancashire; and Argyle attacked and scattered 
the army of Mar at Sheriffmuir (p. 106). The Highlanders, 
however, claimed half a victory, as the old ballad runs : 

" There's some say that we won, and some say that they won, 
And some say that none won at a', man ; 
But one thing is sure, that at Sheriffmuir, 
A battle there was, which I saw, man." 

The Pretender, unaware of these battles, now landed in 
Scotland. He had expected to bring a strong French force 
with him, but his friend Louis XIV. died, and the new French 



286 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1716 

ruler would give no aid. Stupid, selfish, and slow, James 
Edward failed to arouse any enthusiasm for his cause, and 
soon returned to the continent. 

The Septennial Act. The first Triennial Act, passed by 
the Long Parliament (p. 222), had been repealed at the 
Eestoration. In William's reign a second one had been 
passed, which said that a new House of Commons must be 
chosen at least every three years. Now, in the disturbed con- 
dition of the country, it was thought dangerous and incon- 
venient to have elections so often; so a Septennial Act was 
now passed, extending the term during which a Parliament 
may serve, to seven years. This law is still in force. 

The South Sea Company was founded in Anne's reign by 
Lord Treasurer Harley. Its members were men to whom 
the government owed money. Harley induced them to take 
interest-bearing bonds in payment, and gave them a monopoly 
of the South American trade. This consisted of the privilege 
of selling slaves to the Spanish colonies there, and of sending 
one shipload of goods each year. Spain had given these 
privileges to England by the treaty of Utrecht. The com- 
pany made various other plans for extending trade, and pro- 
posed a scheme to pay up the national debt by inducing the 
creditors of the government to exchange their claims for stock 
in the company (1720). It was given out that the govern- 
ment had invested large sums in the enterprise, and that the 
profits of the stockholders would be enormous. And so those 
who had lent money to the government were eager to get the 
company's stock. Thousands of others who had saved up 
money invested it in this way. So great was the craze that 
the price went up from $500 to $5,000 a share. 

So remarkable was the success in selling the stock of this 
company that dozens of other similar companies were begun. 
So many people crowded the offices on Change Alley in Lon- 
don, buying and selling stock, that some of the business was 



1721] 



GEORGE I. 



287 



done in the street. As people became more credulous, com- 
panies were formed even for such objects as making salt 
water fresh, making a perpetual-motion wheel, and telling 
fortunes by the stars ; and finally one man sold $10,000 worth 
of stock in an enterprise so wonderful that he refused to tell 
it at once. After a time it dawned on the investors that 
they had been cheated. But when they tried to sell their 




Change Alley at the Time of the South Sea Bubble. 

stock, no one would buy it. Every one had stock to sell, but 
there being no purchasers the stock was worthless. 

When the story came out that the South Sea Company had 
bribed the ministers to support its schemes, there was an out- 
cry against the government for having encouraged the tre- 
mendous fraud by which thousands of poor people had lost 
their savings. One of the Cabinet was expelled from Parlia- 
ment; the cashier of the company fled to Holland; others 
were arrested and punished. 

NlVER 1 8. 



288 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1721 

A New Cabinet was formed (1721) with Walpole as 
prime minister. He had, from the first, condemned the 
South Sea scheme and was now the only man that had the 
popular confidence. The private property of the officers 
of the company was seized and distributed among those who 
had been the chief losers. But as for thousands who had in- 
vested their money in some other enterprises, the only re- 
turn they ever got was their experience. 

The Wealth of the Country was shown by the large 
amounts invested in these companies. The government had 
not dreamed that the people were so rich. It thus learned 
a way of raising money in future emergencies — borrowing 
it of the people. 

Walpole's Ministry was the first one formed according to 
the method which is followed to-day. That is, the king 
gave him power to choose the other members of the Cabinet. 
They were chosen from the Whig party, as the Whigs then 
had the majority in the House of Commons. Walpole was an 
excellent financier and man of business. He said it was 
always good policy to "let sleeping dogs lie." He gave the 
country rest from wars for about 'twenty years. He was 
careful not to stir up opposition among the people. He did 
not dare repeal the laws excluding dissenters from office, but 
he evaded them by making good the losses suffered on account 
of the laws. 

Political Corruption was commonly practiced in Walpole's 
time. He got men to vote for his measures in Parliament, 
and at the elections, by paying them money. He said that 
" every man has his price." In those times it was hard to 
find a man who would not sell his vote. He said that all 
men were naturally bad, and that they would remain so. He 
had nothing but contempt for reformers and did not believe 
it possible to bring about a purer and better state of things. 

At that time, the meetings of Parliament were secret. No 



1727] GEORGE II. 289 

visitors were allowed, and no newspapers might publish the 
speeches made, or the way in which any man voted. A mem- 
ber could, therefore, sell his vote without fear that the people 
would ever know anything about it. Most of those who had 
a right to vote for members of the House of Commons were 
sure to vote for the candidate who gave them plenty to drink 
and the most money. England now has very strict laws pre- 
venting such bribery; but they were not made till after many 
years of corruption. 

Drunkenness and Immorality were as common as cor- 
ruption. People of all classes drank to excess, from the 
vagrant in the street to the First Lord of the Treasury. Duel- 
ing and gambling were the everyday amusements of the accom- 
plished gentleman, while many of the lower classes plied the 
baser professions of the cutthroat, the pickpocket, and the 
highwayman. 

The Death of George I. took place in 1727. On the road 
to Hanover, he was stricken in his carriage with apoplexy 
and died in a few minutes. 

George II., 1727-1760. 

The Second George was in some respects an improvement 
on his father. He could speak broken English, and could 
understand the language well enough to take part in public 
affairs. He had little ability, but had a high regard for 
justice. He would not knowingly allow any one to be 
wronged. He was a brave soldier, too; he had fought under 
Marlborough in the battles in the Netherlands, and in his 
own reign he commanded an army in another European war. 

Ideas of Trade and Commerce were very different then 
from what they are now. No nation would then allow its 
colonies to trade with other nations, even though the articles 
bought by the colony were not to be had in the mother coun- 
try, It was not understood that, when two countries made 



290 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1727 

an exchange of goods, both might be made richer. When 
Spain, England, and Holland forbade their colonies to trade 
with other countries, they did not see that by making their 
colonies poorer they were making them less able to buy 
goods of the mother country. England, for example, tried to 
prevent the New England colonists from trading with the 
Erench islands in the West Indies, where they exchanged 
fish for sugar. Part of the sugar was sold at home, while 
much of it was made into rum and exchanged in Africa for 
slaves, which found a ready sale for cash in the West Indies 
and southern colonies. Having the cash they were ready to 
buy more English goods. In this way England profited by the 
trade which she was trying to stop. 

Spain, in like manner, forbade all nations to trade with 
her colonies in America. England had obtained a small 
share in this trade by the treaty of Utrecht, but twenty years 
later Spain and Erance entered into an agreement to cut off 
England's trade as much as possible in all parts of the 
world. 

English Smuggling had been extensively carried on with 
all the Spanish colonies, with profit to both the colonies and 
the English merchants. Spain now tried to stop this, and 
many a tale of the cruelty of Spanish coast guards came to 
England. Finally one Captain Jenkins came before the House 
of Commons and exhibited an ear which he claimed had been 
cut off by Spanish officials in the West Indies and given to 
him with the words, " Go, take that to your king I" 

" The War of Jenkins's Ear " was the name given to the 
short war following this incident. There had been a 
popular cry for a war with Spain, and this tale roused a storm 
which Walpole could not resist, though he believed that 
Jenkins's story was a lie from beginning to end. Walpole 
knew that the war was unjust, because the English were break- 
ing a treaty by which they agreed not to send more than one 



1742] GEORGE II. 291 

ship of 600 tons each year. But, right or wrong, the mer- 
chants were bound to trade. There was another point in 
dispute between Spain and England at this time, the Florida 
boundary. 

Georgia, the Thirteenth Colony in America., was founded 
in 1733. James Oglethorpe, a kind army officer, seeing the 
terrible condition of the debtor class in England, formed a 
company for settling poor debtors on the land south of the 
Carolinas. It was the law in England that a man who was 
in debt, even for only a few shillings, might be thrown into 
jail, to remain there until the debt was paid. Unless he had 
friends to help him, he might remain there till he died. Ogle- 
thorpe obtained permission to take imprisoned debtors over to 
his colony and give them a chance to begin over again. But 
the land on which they settled was claimed by Spain as part of 
Florida. 

End of Walpole's Ministry. When the announcement 
was made in London that Walpole had consented to declare 
war the people went wild with delight, lighting bonfires and 
ringing bells. " They are ringing their bells now/' said Sir 
Eobert, "but they will soon be wringing their hands/' A 
fleet sent against the South American towns succeeded in 
taking Porto Bello, but was defeated with loss at Cartagena. 
Later in the war, another fleet inflicted great loss on the 
Spanish colonies and brought home a large amount of treasure. 
There was some fighting between Georgia and Florida. 

Walpole, accused of conducting the war in a half-hearted, 
inefficient way, was obliged to resign in 1742. The next great 
prime minister was Henry Pelham (1744-1754), who was 
aided by his elder brother, the Duke of Newcastle. His policy 
was to give offices to the members of Parliament who had 
influence and could make others vote their way. Money was 
used as freely as in Walpole's time. The two brothers, by 
buying elections with the state funds, and by judiciously dis- 



292 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1743 

posing of favors, kept every one in good humor and secured 
the votes necessary to carry out their measures. 

The War of the Austrian Succession is interesting for 
the reason that King George took part in it, and was the 
last reigning English king who ever commanded an army in 
a battle. It grew out of the attempt of the powers of 
Europe to deprive Maria Theresa, the ruler of Austria, of 
part of her territory. Hanover took the side of Austria, and 
George led a German army against the French. His army, 
cut off from its supplies, attempted to pass through the valley 
of Dettingen, in central Germany, but was met by a French 
army nearly twice its size (1743). George dismounted from 
his horse, drew his sword, and putting himself at the right of 
his men, cried out, " Now boys, for the honor of our country, 
fire and fight bravely, and the French will soon run." The 
French did run, and George led his army to safety. 

The next year, England was dragged into the war, which 
continued till 1748 ; it was then ended by the Treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, by which England and France each restored 
the conquests it had made. In America the war was 
called King George's War, and the chief event was the cap- 
ture of the great French fortress Louisburg by the English 
colonists. 

The " Young Pretender," Charles, eldest son of James 
Edward, made an attempt to stir up rebellion in 1745. He 
came with seven followers to the northern coast, and soon 
gathered several thousand Highlanders about him. He de- 
feated an army slightly smaller than his own at Prestonpans 
so badly that only a few hundred escaped death or capture. 
He then advanced into England, but could gather few fol- 
lowers, and was obliged to retire. The next year he was 
defeated at Culloden by the Duke of Cumberland. The 
massacre of the prisoners and wounded was an everlasting 
disgrace to the conqueror. 



1746] 



GEORGE II. 



293 



Charles wandered a fugitive for months among the hills 
of Scotland. He was at last assisted to escape by a young 
lady named Flora Mac- 
Donald. Her stepfather 
was an officer in the 
king's army. From him 
she obtained a pass for 
herself and a female serv- 
ant. Charles, dressed in 
woman's clothes, was the 
servant. She took him 
to the island of Skye, 
from which he escaped to 
France. Charles never 
appeared in Scotland 
or England again, and 
the House of Stuart no longer played any part in history. 

The faithfulness of the Scotch to the Stuarts is worthy of 
admiration. Though a large reward was offered for Charles's 
arrest, not one would betray him. His story is to this day 




Monument on Battlefield of Culloden. 



remembered and sung in Scotland. 



One of the songs runs : 



"Over the water and over the sea, 
And over the water to Charlie ; 
Come weal, come woe, we'll gather and go, 
And live or die with Charlie." 

Laxity in Morals. Since the beginning of the Eestora- 
tion in 1660, people had been growing more and more wicked, 
and neither the church nor the laws had done much to make 
them better. The ministers themselves were indolent and 
careless, spending their time in card playing, fox hunting, and 
low amusements. Some of them did not even live in the 
parishes where their churches were. The few people who 
attended church gossiped or fell asleep while the minister 
"mumbled" the prayers. 



294 HOUSE OF HANOVER [173G 

The Severe Laws seemed only to make more criminals. 
More than two hundred offenses were punished by hanging. 
Stealing above the amount of five shillings, whether food, 
goods, or money, was punished by death. It was a common 
sight to find twenty or more bodies dangling in front of 
Newgate prison on a Monday morning, while the foul and 
dismal jails were crowded with victims awaiting slower death 
through fever and starvation. Lesser crimes were punished 
by the stocks, the pillory, and flogging. The punishment of 
the criminals was considered an interesting and amusing 
performance, not only by the rabble, but by fine ladies and 
gentlemen, who gathered to witness it much as one would 
go to the circus or the theater. 

Drunkenness increased, owing to the introduction of cheap 
gin and rum. The officers of the government were no better 
than others. Walpole was guilty, not only of bribery and 
corruption in politics, but also of drunkenness and foul lan- 
guage in his private life. It was the ambition of even Eng- 
lish statesmen to drink in public until they rolled off their 
chairs. 

The Number of Schools had not increased since the time 
of Edward VI., and children grew up in ignorance, learning 
only the vice and depravity of the streets. The churches paid 
little attention to the children. There was little religious 
teaching either in the church or in the home. Hannah More 
tells us that in one parish she found only " one Bible, and that 
was used as a prop for a flower-pot/ 7 

A Great Religious Revival began with some young men 
who were students in the Oxford colleges. The leaders 
among them were George Whitefield, and the brothers John 
and Charles Wesley. Their regular habits of work and wor- 
ship, and the orderly and careful way in which they lived, 
soon gave them the name of "Methodist," and this name was 
kept for the new church which grew out of their preaching. 



1744] 



GEORGE II. 



295 



In order to reach the people who did not go to church, 
the Methodists preached in the open air under the oak trees, 
riding on horseback from place to place. The people came 
by thousands to hear them. Near Bristol, Whitefield preached 
to twenty thousand miners, and so powerfully did he speak 
to them about their sins and evil lives, and the certainty that 
punishment would come upon them, that the tears flowed, 
" making white channels down their blackened cheeks." The 
Methodist preachers visited the foul slums of London, where 
the people seldom 
had a chance to hear 
of anything good. 
On the wharfs and the 
street corners, wher- 
ever listeners could 
be found, they would 
preach to the people, 
urging them to give 
up their drunkenness 
and gambling and to 
lead better, purer 
lives. Whitefield and 
the Wesleys did not 
confine their work to England, but visited the American 
colonies also. 

Charles Wesley was noted as a hymn writer, and this new 
form of worship was sung in words so beautiful and strong 
that his influence for good was not surpassed by the most 
eloquent of the preachers. 

Though it was not the intention of these men to separate 
from the English Church, their manner of work was so dif- 
ferent from the old ways, that John Wesley organized a new 
church. Before his death (1791), it numbered 110,000 
members. 




John Wesley's House. 



£96 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1780 

The Effects of this " Wesleyan " Movement, as it is 

called, were most important. The English Church was stirred 
up to new life and energy, and its eyes were opened to the 
great evils of the times. Towards the close of the century 
Kobert Kaikes of Gloucester established Sunday schools for 
the religious education of the children, a movement which has 
spread through the whole Christian world. Next, day schools 
appeared and increased until finally, before the middle of the 
next century, a system of public schools was begun. 

John Howard, a sheriff of Bedfordshire, began in 1774 to 
tell people about the evil condition of the prisons under his 
care. The prisoners were confined in dark and filthy cells 
and were treated with the greatest cruelty by their keepers, 
who lived on the money which they could compel them to pay. 
Sometimes a man who had served his sentence could not go 
free because he could not pay the jailer for the food which 
had been furnished him. Howard went through many of the 
prisons in England, as well as in France and Germany. He 
had himself put in prison so he could know by actual experi- 
ence just what the prisoners had to suffer. He wrote a book 
describing all he had seen, and from that time things began 
to improve, because' he showed people the terrible conditions 
which prevailed. 

An Important Reform in the Calendar was made in 1752. 
Before that time the year began on the 25th of March, "Lady's 
Da}r," and was reckoned to be 36514 days in length. This 
length had been established by Julius Caesar. But it was 
found that a year is not exactly 36514 days, but about eleven 
minutes less. In Catholic countries a new style calendar had 
been adopted, by order of the Pope, which reckoned the year 
at very nearly its true length. In 1752 English dates were 
eleven days behind those of the continent, and to set them 
right the 3d of September was called the 14th, and the new 
year was made to begin on January 1st. 



1744] GEORGE II. 297 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. What was the Privy Council? How did the Cabinet arise? 

2. Compare the time of Walpole with the present in regard to 

political corruption. Why was it allowed then and not now? 

3. What determines the length of time that a Parliament may serve? 

4. In what way was the accession of the House of Hanover a benefit 

to the English people? 

5. Describe the reforms in religion and morals. What good results 

followed from them? 

6. Why was the commerce of the colonies restricted to Great Britain? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Prince Charlie. Henty, Bonnie Prince Charlie; Scott, Red- 

gauntlet; Morris, Historic Tales, English, pp. 260-279, 300-319. 

2. George Whitefield. Holt, Out in the Forty-five. 

3. John Wesley. Kendall, Source Book, pp. 333-335 ; Yonge, Cameos 

from English History, IV., pp. 1-12. 

4. The South Sea Bubble. Wright, Stories of American History. 

5. Gibraltar. Church, Stories from English History, III., Ch. XVI. 

6. The Cabinet. Moran, English Government, chap. IV-X. 

B. The Struggle for Empire. 

A Struggle for Empire was going on all over the world, 
wherever France and Great Britain had possessions. This 
struggle really lasted from 1744 till 1763. 

In order to know what all the trouble was about, we must 
remember that since the discovery of America by Columbus, 
five nations of Europe, Portugal, Spain, Holland, England, 
and France, had sent out ships and colonists into every part 
of the world to settle and to engage in trade. At first there 
was room enough for all, but sooner or later jealousy and 
strife was sure to come. 

Spain and Portugal were the first to begin a dispute over 
their respective claims. This was settled by a decision of the 
Pope, and by a treaty. A line was drawn across the map from 
north to south, giving to Portugal all new lands from Brazil 
east to the East Indies, and to Spain all of America except 



298 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1579 



Brazil. Next Holland, after gaining her independence from 
Spain about 1579, came into the field and soon became the 
greatest commercial nation in Europe. She outstripped the 
Portuguese in the East, seized Sumatra, Java, and other 
islands of the East Indies, besides parts of the coast of Africa, 
and came to control the larger part of the East Indian trade. 




a^sTV ^ 



India. 

England and Spain fought long wars over the Western 
trade ; but the English colonies were located in the north and 
those of Spain in the south, and did not fight each other very 
much. The English naval power proved too strong for Hol- 
land, but these two countries were usually friendly, and the 
power of the Dutch was too firmly established in the Indies 



1748] GEORGE II. 299 

to be disturbed. In Africa and India,, however, they were in 
the end driven out by the English. 

The wars of France and England, at home and with 
each other, at first kept these nations from giving much atten- 
tion to the settlement of new lands. But we have seen how, 
in the peaceful reign of Elizabeth, English merchants and ex- 
plorers began to find their way into all parts of the world. 
France during the time of Louis XIY. had also made great 
progress in foreign trade and colonization. France and Eng- 
land were now, in the middle of the eighteenth century, the 
great rival powers, and the trial of their strength was to be 
made in India and America. 

French and English in India. We have seen how the 
East India Company was founded near the end of Elizabeth's 
reign (p. 199). It now had trading posts or forts at Surat, 
Bombay, and Madras, on the eastern and western coasts of 
India, and at Calcutta, near the mouth of the Ganges. The 
Dutch, the Portuguese, and the French also held trading 
posts and were ambitious of power in India. While the first 
two nations wished only to trade, the French were eager to get 
control of the country, which as yet was almost entirely under 
the government of native princes. 

About the time of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (p. 292), the 
French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix, leagued with some 
of the native princes who were opposed to the English, cap- 
tured Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, and made his own 
candidate the nabob, or king, of that province. He drilled 
the Sepoys, or native soldiers, in the French fashion, and be^ 
came so powerful that the Mogul emperor at Delhi appointed 
the Frenchman governor of the whole southwestern coast. It 
looked as though the French, and not the British, were des- 
tined to rule India. 

Robert Clive was a clerk in the offices of the English East 
India Company at Madras. He was only twenty-one years of 



300 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1748 



age, but absolutely fearless. He once fought a duel with an 
officer whom he accused of cheating at cards. His antagonist, 
unhurt by Clivers bullet, stepped up and, holding a pistol at 
his head, demanded an apology. " Fire away," said Clive, " I 
said you cheated, and I still say it." The officer did not 
fire. Clive soon headed a small band of English against the 
French headquarters at Pondicherry, but failed to take it. 
After raising a force of 500 men, natives and English, he 

attacked Arcot, a city 
of a hundred thousand 
people under French 
control. As he ap- 
proached the town a 
terrible thunderstorm 
came on. The super- 
stitious natives were 
afraid to fight during 
the storm, and the 
city surrendered with- 
out striking a blow. 

Siege of Arcot 
(1751). The French, 
however, soon sur- 
rounded Arcot with 
an army of ten thou- 
sand men, and things 
looked desperate for 
the two hundred English within the walls. For weeks they 
held out, until there was little food left. 

On a great festival day, the natives led by the French 
made a fierce attack on the walls. Elephants whose heads 
were covered with iron plates butted against the gates. If 
they could not take the city on this day, it was certain they 
would not try again. Clive urged his men to fight. He 




War Elephant. 



1756] GEORGE II. 301 

trained a piece of artillery on a raft which was crossing the 
moat before the town and killed all the men on it. At night 
the army gave up the siege and fled. They thought the man 
who could defy thunderstorms and holy days was in league 
with the devil, or perhaps with God himself. Clive had 
broken the alliance between the natives and the French, and 
had saved the English power in the Carnatic. 

The "Black Hole of Calcutta" (1756). North of the 
British town of Calcutta, in the city of Murshidabad, lived a 
cruel and dissolute young prince, Sura j ah Dowlah. He 
thought that the English had great stores of treasure in their 
trading station at Calcutta, and led a great army to capture 
them. After he had bombarded the town for two days, the 
little company of one hundred and fifty men were forced to 
surrender. The sura j ah was dissatisfied at finding only fifty 
thousand rupees, and thought that the English had buried 
their money in some part of the town. To secure his pris- 
oners for the night, he drove them at the point of the bayonet 
into a small dungeon which had but two small windows. In 
the hot Indian climate of midsummer, it would have been 
torture for a single prisoner to spend the night in such a 
place. Eor a hundred and forty-six it meant, for the larger 
number, death with all the agonies of heat, thirst, and suffo- 
cation. They struggled to the windows to get the air, and 
trod to death their companions who had fallen. "As the 
hours passed," says Macaulay, " the prisoners grew mad with 
despair ; they trampled upon, and fought one another for the 
pittance of water which was allowed them ; they raved, prayed, 
blasphemed, and called upon the guards to fire upon them. 
At length the tumult died away in low moans and quick 
gasping for breath. When daylight came and the dungeon 
was opened, the floor was heaped with the mutilated bodies 
of the dead. Of the whole number only twenty-three were 
alive, and those so changed that their own mothers would not 



302 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1756 

have known them/' The one woman among the prisoners 
survived. 

The Battle of Plassey. It was two months before the 
news of the " Black Hole " came to Madras. Clive, after a 
visit to England, had now returned to Madras, and to him was 
given the task of vengeance. He went to Calcutta with three 
thousand men. The sura j ah had fifty thousand. The battle 
of Plassey, fought near Murshidabad, the sura jail's capital, 
in June, 1757, settled the strife. Part of the sura j air's army 
deserted, and the remainder, 30,000, was totally defeated. The 
sura j ah was murdered by his own general, whom Clive placed 
upon the throne of Murshidabacl. English supremacy was 
thus firmly established in the basin of the Ganges, the richest 
territory in India. To Eobert Clive, more than any other 
man, Great Britain owes her Indian empire. 

French and English in America. French colonies had 
been established along the St. Lawrence Eiver, the Great 
Lakes, and the Mississippi, to the Gulf of Mexico. They 
stretched around the English colonies like a great bow of 
which the string was the Atlantic coast. The vast inland 
region between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi had been 
entered only by a few bold hunters and traders. Before 1750 
it became evident that a struggle must soon come. between 
the French and the English for the control of this interior 
region. 

The Ohio Land Company was formed in 1749, composed 
of wealthy Virginians, to whom King George had granted 
a half million acres in the valley of the Ohio. Four years 
later, some surveyors and soldiers were sent to build a fort 
there and to survey and mark off the claims of the company. 
But they were driven off by the French, who completed their 
fort and named it Fort Duquesne. 

The Virginians sent Washington with a small force the 
next year to recapture the fort. He surprised a company 




303 



304 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1754 



of the French in the woods and defeated them, but later was 
compelled to surrender to superior numbers. 

General Braddock was sent to America the next spring and 
again took the road to Fort Duquesne with a force of 1,500 
men. A few miles from the fort he was badly defeated by a 
smaller force of French and Indians. 

The Seven Years' War began in Europe in 1756, the 
year following Braddock's defeat. Austria, France, and Eus- 
sia joined against Frederick the Great of Prussia. George II. 
made an alliance with Frederick and furnished him money and 
soldiers. 

Thomas Pelham, Duke of Newcastle, became George's 
prime minister in 1754. While he could control votes in Par- 
liament, he could not manage a war. 
The only way he had of making ap- 
pointments was to sell them to his 
friends. At the beginning of the war 
the French had slipped quietly over 
and captured the island of Minorca (p. 
164). Admiral Byng, whom New- 
castle had sent to defend it, considered 
the French too strong for him and with- 
drew. The people were enraged at the 
incapacity of Newcastle and at the fail- 
ures in both Europe and America. To satisfy the popular 
feeling, Byng was arrested for cowardice and, after trial, was 
shot on the quarter-deck of his ship. A Frenchman wittily 
remarked that the " English were accustomed to shoot one 
admiral to encourage the rest/' Newcastle, fearing that his 
head might be wanted also, resigned. 

William Pitt, the greatest Englishman of his time, was 
now put at the head of affairs. He was one of the young men 
at whom Robert Walpole had sneered for opposing the buy- 
ing of votes. He was one man that Walpole could not buy. 




William Pitt. 



1759] GEORGE II. 305 

He had become famous in Parliament on account of his power 
in speaking. His influence was felt throughout the country. 
" No one ever talked with him," said one man, " who did not 
feel himself better and braver afterward." Frederick the 
Great, when he heard of Pitt's appointment, exclaimed, " Eng- 
land has at last produced a man!" 

Pitt, however, did not control many votes in the House 
of Commons. Before long he and Newcastle formed a coali- 
tion. Pitt was to manage the wars, and Newcastle was to 
do the bribing and keep the support of Parliament. Pitt 
had great confidence in Frederick. He sent him 20,000 Eng- 
lish soldiers and large amounts of money. Frederick was the 
greatest soldier of the age, and kept the French so busy on his 
western frontier that they could spare few soldiers for Amer- 
ica. At Minden, one of the many battles of this war, six 
English regiments, through some mistake, were ordered to 
attack ten thousand French cavalry. Though the cavalry 
charged again and again, they were hurled back defeated, and 
a victory was won that was entirely unexpected. Said the 
French commander, ie I have seen what I never thought pos- 
sible, a single line of infantry break through three lines of 
cavalry ranked in order of battle and tumble them to ruin." 

The French and Indian War in America had been going 
on at the same time with the wars in India and Europe. In 
the same year that Sura j ah Dowlah thrust the English prison- 
ers into the Black Hole of Calcutta, Montcalm, the French 
commander in Canada, captured Fort Oswego in New York. 
Two years later (1758), with Pitt in power, the tide turned; 
the English at last took Fort Duquesne. The year 1759 saw 
the battle of Minden and the capture of Quebec by General 
Wolfe. 

The secret of Pitt's success was his knowing how to choose 
the right man for the work in hand. When he sent General 
Wolfe to America, it was not because he wanted to get his 

NlVER 19. 



306 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1759 



vote, but because lie knew Wolfe could take Quebec if any 
one could. 

The Capture of Quebec decided the war. Wolfe took 
his army there on a fleet that sailed up the St. Lawrence. 
But the city stands on a lofty rock and the river is bounded 
by high, steep cliffs. It was apparently impossible to get an 

army near enough to the 
city to begin the battle. 
Wolfe sailed up and 
down the river and at last 
discovered a path begin- 
ning at the river^s edge 
and winding upward 
among the rocks until it 
reached the Plains of 
Abraham above. One 
dark night he placed his 
soldiers in boats and took 
them safely down to the 
place where the path be- 
gan. A long line of sol- 
diers began to climb up- 
ward. All the night they 
toiled up, and when day 
broke the French general 
looked out upon an Eng- 
lish army before the 
walls of Quebec. Mont- 
calm threw open the 
gates and led his troops 
against the foe. A desperate battle was fought in which 
Montcalm and Wolfe were mortally wounded. As the Eng- 
lish general lay on the ground, he heard some one cry, " They 
run, they run \" 




Wolfe Monument at Quebec. 



1760] GEORGE II. 307 

" Who run ?" said he, lifting his head. 

" The French/ 5 was the answer. 

" Then/ 5 said he, " I die happy. 5 ' 

The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1763, made this year the 
most important in the whole history of the British Empire; 
for it gave her control of India and half of North America, 
and established her as " Mistress of the Seas. 55 France was 
compelled to give to England Canada and the territory east 
of the Mississippi. She agreed also to keep no military force 
in India, keeping only the right to trade, and lost besides four 
of her West India islands. 

George II. Died in the height of England 5 s prosperity 
(1760), when the news of victories was so constant that 
Horace Walpole said, " We must ask every morning what new 
victory has been won, for fear we may miss hearing of one. 55 
His eldest son having died before him, the throne descended 
to his grandson. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. What were the causes of the war with France? 

2. In what way did these wars grow out of trade? 

3. Compare Pitt's rule with that of Newcastle. 

4. In what ways did England acquire possessions in India? 

5. How do you explain the English victories? How did they affect 

the position of England as a commercial nation? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Aecot and Plassey. Church, Stories from English History; 

Henty, With Clive in India. 

2. Wolfe at Quebec. Church, Stories from English History, pp. 

573-580; Fitchett, Deeds that Won the Empire, pp. 13-26. 

3. William Pitt. Mowry, First Steps in the History of England, 

Ch. XXII. ; Rosebery, Pitt. 

4. The Black Hole of Calcutta. Macaulay, Essay on Clive. 

5. Robekt Clive. Macaulay, Essay on Clive; Henty, With Clive in 

India. 



XL THE HOUSE OE HANOVER (Continued). 



A. The Loss of the American Colonies. 



George III., 1 760-1820. 

The New King had the advantage of not being a for- 
eigner. " Born and educated in this land," said George in 
his first speech to Parliament, " I glory in the name of 
Briton." His tutor, Lord Bute, a Scotchman, had educated 
him to believe that an English king ought to have far greater 
power than his grandfather had enjoyed. 
His mother, too, disliked the party rule 
that had grown up in England, and 
would say to him, " George, be king ! " 
meaning that he should take the direction 
of affairs himself. Pitt was compelled 
to resign, because he could not persuade 
the Cabinet to declare war on Spain in 
1761. Newcastle also was soon induced 
to resign, leaving Bute prime minister. 
But Bute became so distasteful to the Parliament because he 
was a Scot, and because he did not believe in the old system 
of bribery, that he too soon resigned. 

The King's Plan was to break down the power that the 
Whigs had had, and to choose his Cabinet from both parties 
if he saw fit to do so. The Tories had lost their influ- 
ence because they had favored the Pretender and opposed the 
House of Hanover ; but now that no Stuart could any longer 
hope for the throne, they had become as loyal as the Whigs, 
and were entitled to a share in the government. 

308 




George III. 



1765] 



GEORGE III. 



309 



George Grenville became prime minister in 1766. He 
was the author of the famous Stamp Act, the first at- 
tempt made by Parliament to raise money by taxing the 
American colonies. 

The Growth of the Thirteen Colonies had been steady 
and rapid. Their population was nearly three millions. 
They had a flourishing commerce. Tobacco, rice, indigo, 
and the products of the pine forests, were the exports from 
the South; iron, fish, rum, lumber, and ships, from the 
North. Agriculture was profitable. By law they were al- 
lowed to trade only with Great Britain, 
but they had a large commerce with 
Holland and France, carried on through 
the West Indian possessions of these 
countries. The governments of the 
colonies were much alike. In every 
one there was a body of men elected by 
the people, called usually the Assembly. 
This body had the sole power to levy 
taxes. The governors were elected by 
the people in two colonies, appointed by 
the king in eight, and by the proprietor 
in the three colonies that still had pro- 
prietors. 

The colonists had learned to fight 
during the colonial wars. More than 
forty thousand of them had become 
experienced soldiers, and many were ex- 
cellent leaders. Since the French colonies had been con- 
quered, they had no longer a dangerous white foe on their 
borders, and they did not feel the need of England's protec- 
tion so much as before. 

The Stamp Act. England had a large public debt. Since 
William III. founded the Bank of England, the country had 




British Soldier. 



310 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1765 

been borrowing money. The last war had been especially 
expensive, because so much money had been given to Fred- 
erick. Grenville said that this war had been fought on 
account of the American colonies, and that they ought to 
pay for it, or at least ought to support part of the British 
army. The colonists argued that they had furnished nearly 
all the soldiers who .fought in America, had paid more 
than their share of the expense, and did not need the protec- 
tion of a British army. But Grenville had the Stamp Act 
passed (1765), which said that all newspapers, and law 
papers, such as wills, marriage licenses, deeds, and leases, 
must be written or printed on stamped paper purchased 
from the British government. The money thus raised was 
to support British soldiers stationed in the colonies. But 
the colonists drove away the stamp agents and resisted the 
tax. They said they sent no members to Parliament and 
therefore Parliament had no right to tax them. 

In England the colonists had many friends. For cen- 
turies the English people had fought kings for the sole 
right of taxing themselves, and should they now refuse that 
right to the English in America? Among these friends, 
William Pitt was the leader. He made an eloquent speech 
in favor of repealing the Stamp Act. " Taxation and repre- 
sentation," he said, " go hand in hand." He argued that the 
country would lose the trade of the Americans, and perhaps 
the colonies too, if it tried to tax them. Most Englishmen 
applauded him when he said, i( l rejoice that America has 
resisted; three millions of people, so dead to all the feelings 
of liberty as willingly to submit to be slaves, would be fit 
instruments to make slaves of all the rest." 

Parliament finally repealed the Stamp Act, and Grenville, 
having quarreled with the king, resigned. 

A New Tax was imposed on the colonies in 1767 at 
the suggestion of Charles Townshend, who had become one 



1774] GEORGE III. 311 

of the "king's friends," as those men were now called who 
supported George in his efforts to "be king." This was an 
import tax on glass, paints, paper, and tea. The colonists 
had always admitted the right of Parliament to regulate 
trade in the British Empire by means of such duties on im- 
ports, but they saw that the object of Townshend's tax was 
not to regulate trade, but to raise money, and they were 
already angry over the Stamp Act. They refused, therefore, 
to buy any British goods till the tax should be repealed. The 
English merchants then urged Parliament to repeal the tax, 
and it soon did so, on all the articles except tea. 

An English company now sent several shiploads of tea to 
America, but the colonists refused to allow it to be landed, 
and when there was no other way to keep the tea out of 
Boston, a party of men went on board the tea ships at night, 
and threw the tea into the harbor (1773). 

The Port of Boston was now ordered closed until the 
people should pay for the tea that they had destroyed. Parlia- 
ment also took away from Massachusetts some of the rights 
given to her by her charter, and it sent soldiers to Boston 
and compelled the people to support them. 

The English People, it must be remembered, did not 
want such laws made. The House of Commons at this time 
did not truly represent the people. There were only one 
hundred and sixty thousand people, of a. population of eight 
millions, that had the right to vote. The Tories and the 
king's friends bought up the elections just as Walpole and 
the Whigs had done; and if a member got into the House 
who would not support them they made it very unpleasant 
for him. 

The Case of John Wilkes shows the situation. The 
people of Middlesex had elected him; but, as he had con- 
demned the policy of the king, the Tories in the House 
voted that his opponent was elected, although this opponent 



312 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[17G4 



had received only a few votes. This led to riots all over 
England, The people of London declared that the House 
of Commons no longer represented the people. Many large 
towns, like Manchester and Birmingham, had no representa- 
tives at all, while many small towns, called "rotten boroughs," 
had two each. When Englishmen told the Americans that 
they were as well represented in Parliament as many cities 
in England, James Otis replied, " Don't talk to me about those 
towns ! If they are not represented, they ought to be." And 
the Whigs in England applauded. 

The Arguments on Both Sides were something like this. 
The king and the Tories held that the colonies belonged to 
the crown, which had rightfully seized heathen lands and 
given them to certain individuals and com- 
panies, with the understanding that they 
could do nothing contrary to the king's will. 
The king had the right to make any laws 
he chose for them. " The only use of colo- 
nies," said one Englishman, " is to buy our 
goods and to furnish freight for our ships." 
The colonies had no rights except those 



that the king chose to give them. 

The colonists claimed that America was 
an expansion of the mother country, and 
had the same rights; that it was the right 
of English people to be taxed only by their 
own representatives. 
In England, the king had at last got the government 
entirely into his own hands. Lord North, who became prime 
minister in 1770, did exactly as the king wished. From this 
time until the close of the War of the Eevolution, George was 
really King of England. 

Beginning of the American Revolution. Preparations 
for war went on rapidly in the colonies after the port of 




A MlNUTEMAN. 



1.780] GEORGE III. 313 

Boston was closed. Companies of " minutemen " were 
drilled in every town, and stores of ammunition were col- 
lected. In April, 1775, the British general in Boston sent 
some soldiers to destroy the military stores at Concord; on 
their way they fired upon some minutemen at Lexington ; and 
at Concord and on their way back they were attacked so fierce- 
ly that they were saved from destruction only by prompt rc- 
enforcements. The British were now besieged in Boston and 
in June was fought the battle of Bunker Hill, in which part 
of the besieging force twice repulsed a British attack, but 
was finally driven back. The siege continued and the next 
year the British were compelled to leave the city. 

Declaration of Independence. Meanwhile a congress of 
delegates from all the colonies had met in Philadelphia (May, 
1775), voted money for war, and elected George Washington 
commander in chief of the Continental Army. In July, 1776, 
all the colonies having voted in favor of separation from the 
British Empire, Congress adopted a formal Declaration of 
Independence. 

War in the Middle States began in 177G. The British, 
under Howe, seized New York in the summer, afte,r defeating 
Washington in the battle of Brooklyn ; and drove the Ameri- 
can army beyond the Delaware. The next year it was planned 
that the British general Burgoyne should come down from 
Canada, and that Howe should ascend the Hudson to meet 
him. This river was to be held, and the New England colo- 
nies thus cut off from the rest. But Howe decided first to 
capture Philadelphia; and Burgoyne, when he reached Sara- 
toga, was surrounded and forced to surrender. 

The War in the South was the last stage of the Eevolu- 
tion. The British, defeated in New England and in New 
York, now aimed to regain the Southern colonies, where the 
Tory party was strong. At first they were successful, and 
for a time there were again royal governors of Georgia and 



314 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1780 



South Carolina. In 1780, however, a strong force of British 
and Tories was destroyed in the battle of Kings Mountain; 
and after many more fierce fights the British were driven 
ont again. 

France Aids the United States. Meanwhile, France had 
been carefully watching the struggle of the Americans. 




The Surrender op Cornwallis. 

When she received the news of Burgoyne's surrender, she 
decided that the time had come to get revenge for her loss 
of Canada. In 1778 she made a treaty of alliance with the 
colonies, and sent fleets, armies, and money to help them. 
The next year Spain also declared war against England, 
hoping to get back Gibraltar and Florida, which England 
had acquired in 1763* War also broke out in India, at 
Haidarabad and Mysore (map, p. 298) ; in western Africa, 
and in the West Indies. Thus not only was the alliance 



1783] GEORGE III. 315 

of France with America directly helpful to the Americans, 
but England, being obliged to fight everywhere at once, could 
not send so many men to America as she otherwise might. 
More than 300,000 British soldiers were on duty in various 
parts of the world ; but when Washington forced the surrender 
of the British army under Cornwallis, at Yorktown (1781), 
though it numbered only 7,000, England could not replace 
the loss. When Lord North received the news, he threw up 
his hands and cried, " It is all over," and gave up his office. 
George III. announced to the House of Lords in December, 
1782, that he acknowledged the independence of the United 
States. 

Edmund Burke and William Pitt had urged Lord North 
and the king to repeal the laws against Massachusetts. But 
Pitt died in the House of Commons in 1778, and Burke 
made his great " Conciliation Speech " in vain. " It is in- 
tolerable," said Fox, another distinguished member of Par- 
liament, referring to Lord North, "that it should be in the 
power of one blockhead to do so much mischief." But the 
mischief was done. 

The Treaty of Versailles, made in 1783, acknowledged 
the independence of the United States. Spain got back 
Florida and Minorca; France the most of her settlements 
in India, Africa, and the West Indies. England thus lost 
more than she had gained under the splendid rule of William 
Pitt, which had resulted in triumph at Quebec and Plassey. 
George had realized his desire to "be king," but had lost a 
large part of his dominions. 

Religious Riots broke out in England near the close of 
the American war. In the time of William III., when there 
was fear of a Stuart invasion, many unjust laws were made 
against Catholics. The celebration of Catholic worship was 
condemned as high treason. Catholics were not allowed to 
inherit or to acquire property. These laws were repealed 



316 HOUSE OE HANOVER [1780 

in England in 1778, but Protestant societies were formed to 
secure their reenactment. A half -crazy religious fanatic, 
named George Gordon, led 50,000 men to petition Parliament 
to restore the laws, but the petitioners soon became a lawless 
mob. They began to burn Catholic chapels; then they 
burned other chapels; finally they burned and plundered 
whatever they pleased. Prisons were broken open, and the 
prisoners released. Every man who wanted to be safe had 
to wear the blue Protestant ribbon and chalk " No Popery " 
on his door. The government foolishly allowed the mob to 
go on unchecked for eight days. Lord Amherst was then 
ordered to attack the rioters. A few volleys of musketry 
and a bayonet charge soon cleared the streets, but five hundred 
of the mob were killed or wounded. 

In India, the East India Company partly made good the 
losses that England suffered in America. In 1772 Warren 
Hastings was made governor of Bengal, and two years later 
the first governor-general of British India. He established 
the rule of the company in Bengal, defeated the Mahrattas, 
or native Hindus, and conquered the able Mohammedan 
leader, Hyder Ali, in the Carnatic. 

To raise money for these wars, Hastings plundered some 
native princes and committed other acts for which he was 
impeached and tried before the House of Lords. Some of 
the greatest English statesmen and lawyers of the time, 
Burke, Fox, and Sheridan, made speeches against him. But 
the good work he had done towards securing India for Eng- 
land was an excuse for all his faults, and he was acquitted. 

A Bill for the Government of India was made a law in 
1784. A trading company had accidentally come into pos- 
session of a part of India, and was ruling over many millions 
of people. The appointment of the governor-general was now 
transferred to the Cabinet, but the details of the government 
were left to the company, subject to the will of a board of 



1784] GEORGE III. 317 

control composed of the king's ministers. The company was 
to keep all the rights and privileges of trade. In this way 
India continued to be governed for many years. 

When England Lost the Thirteen Colonies, many 
statesmen thought that she would never be so great a, nation 
as before; but the separation proved to be an advantage to 
both countries. England's foolish laws for restricting the 
trade and manufactures of the colonies were wiped away by 
their independence. But now that the colonies were free, 
they began to buy more English goods than ever, because they 
had more money with which to buy them ; and England found 
to her great surprise that she made more money out of the new 
republic than she had made out of the old colonies. 

Adam Smith, a Scotchman, published in 1776 a book 
called " The Wealth of Nations." This book had a great 
influence in reforming English notions about commerce, both 
with her colonies and with foreign countries. English people 
had always thought that the more golcL and silver they could 
keep in the country, the richer they were. But Smith proved 
that the wealth of a country does not depend so much on 
money as upon the number of sheep and the bushels of grain 
produced, and upon the number of useful things manufac- 
tured. 

People had always thought that it was a loss for the na- 
tion to buy goods in France, that the French could make 
more cheaply than the English. The English government 
would not allow the Irish to sell linen and woolen goods in 
England, because the Irish sold them cheaper than the 
English people could make them. Adam Smith said that the 
country should make the things that it could make most 
cheaply; that it should buy linen in Ireland, and silk in 
France, if these goods were cheaper there than in England. 
If England could make iron and steel, cotton and woolen 
goods, at less expense than other countries, she should make 



318 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1783 

these things. This, he said, would make every country 
richer. 

William Pitt the Younger, who became the king's chief 
minister in 1783, thought there was much truth in what 
Smith said. He believed that a nation that keeps its cus- 
tomers poor, as England had done, can not sell them so many 
goods. He made a new treaty with France, lowering the 
rates of duty so that there could be trade between the two 
countries. The duty on French goods had been so high that 
English merchants could not buy them. This had led to a 
vast amount of smuggling, which was very hard to stop. 
When the duty was made low, the smuggling stopped and 
the government began to get an income, because merchants 
could now buy the goods and afford to pay the duty. A 
similar arrangement was made with the other countries of 
Europe, and with the West Indies. An attempt was made 
also to take off all the duties on Irish goods, but the English 
merchants and manufacturers made such a strong opposi- 
tion that it could not be done. The Irish Parliament had 
agreed to the plan of free trade between the two countries; 
but when the British Parliament proposed a half-way 
measure, the Irish rejected it. 

Two Great Evils now needed to be cured. The old sys- 
tem of bribery, by which the king and a few political leaders 
kept control of the government, ought to be done away with; 
and more people ought to have the right to vote. As it was, 
a few people chose the House of Commons. Since it was 
easier to buy a few men than to buy many, the Cabinet 
did not wish a change. At one time in Great Britain, thirty- 
two men had the power to choose seventy-two members. In 
the Irish Parliament, also, twenty-five men controlled one 
hundred and sixteen seats, and the British ministers one 
hundred and eighty-six. 

In such a state of affairs the people had little power. They 



1807] GEORGE III. 319 

were beginning now to demand a change. Pitt proposed to 
take away the representatives from the " rotten boroughs " in 
Great Britain and give them to the larger towns; but the 
Parliament would not listen to such a proposal and it was 
not done until 1832. 

Prohibition of the Slave Trade. The evils of the slave 
trade also began to receive attention. The Quakers had pe- 
titioned against it in 1783. A young man named Thomas 
Clarkson had written a book describing the horrible treatment 
that the slaves received. It is estimated that as many as 
50,000 were seized in Africa every year, and carried off to be 
sold in America. They were crowded into ships, chained and 
packed away on shelves like merchandise. A bill to prohibit 
the slave trade was passed by the Commons three times, but 
each time the House of Lords refused to pass it. Finally in 
1807 the slave trade was prohibited. Success was largely due 
to William Wilberforce, a member of Parliament who devoted 
his whole life to the cause of the slave. The law did not 
abolish slavery; it only said that the buying of slaves in 
Africa must stop. 

These Measures of Reform began with the people, whom 
Pitt represented. The merchant and trading classes were be- 
coming rich and powerful in England. The press had be- 
come a very great power. The doings of Parliament were 
now printed in the newspapers, and people were free to speak 
their minds. Wilkes (p. 311) and an unknown author who 
signed the name u Junius " to his letters, had written harsh 
criticisms on King George and his "friends." An effort to 
punish Wilkes failed; the people were determined to sustain 
the freedom of the press. They wanted to know what their 
government was doing. The Parliament, knowing that the 
people were keeping close watch of them, were more careful 
to do what was desired, and in most cases the voice of the 
people was right. 



320 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1760 

Farming, Manufacturing, and Transportation were 
wonderfully improved during the first half of the reign of 
George III. It was not her colonies that made England the 
greatest industrial country in the world, but the genius of the 
people who knew how to make use of the products of these 
colonies. During this period, the people also improved their 
methods of farming and of stock raising. A country can 
not have a large population unless enough food can be pro- 
cured to feed them. 

A large part of the land at the end of the eighteenth 
century consisted of waste moorlands and swamps, affording 
only a scanty pasturage. People began to cut ditches through 
the wet land and drain it, so that it could be plowed, planted, 
and cultivated. A Yorkshire miner, named James Croft, set 
a good example to farmers by fencing eight acres of moorland, 
thought to be worthless. But Croft dug out the stones and 
filled up the holes with soil ; he brought marl and fertilized it, 
and found that it was excellent land. 

A farmer named Eobert Bakewell learned how to breed 
cattle and sheep so that he could get twice as much beef or 
mutton from a single animal as before. By keeping only the 
largest and finest animals, he soon had better flocks and herds 
than any of his neighbors. His methods were imitated until 
England came to produce some of the finest breeds of cattle 
and sheep in the world. 

But means of transportation, good roads and canals, are 
necessary if the farmers and others are to find a market for 
their products. When the United States became independent 
in 1776, it had better means of getting from place to place 
than England had. There was no better way to carry goods 
on land, than in carts and on the backs of horses; and the 
roads were so bad that even this could be done easily only at 
certain times. 

Canal Building in England came about in this way. The 



1767] GEORGE III. 321 

young Duke of Bridgewater had valuable coal beds on his 
estate, situated nine miles from the large city of Manchester. 
If he could get the coal to the city it would find a ready 
market; but the expense of taking it there in carts over the 
bad roads was more than the coal was worth. The duke had 
in his employ a millwright, James Brindley, who thought a 
canal could be made. The canal would have to go through 
tunnels, across valleys, and over rivers. Such an undertaking 
had never been dreamed of. The most famous engineers in 
England only laughed at Brindley. But he went to work and 
built the canal. People came from far and near to see the 
work. They said that Brindley " handled rocks as easily as 
a boy would' a plum pie at Christmas." It was finished and 
was a success. 

Once started, canal building went on, until the chief rivers 
and cities were connected by three thousand miles of nav- 
igable canals. The great coal and iron deposits could now be 
brought together. Iron working had stopped when the wood 
in the neighborhood of the mines was exhausted. But soon 
it was found that hard coal could be used, as well as char- 
coal, for smelting iron ore. ISTow that the canals made it 
possible to transport the heavy coal and iron, England be- 
came the greatest iron-manufacturing country in the world. 

Three Great Inventions connected with cloth making 
were the beginning of the great factories for which England 
has long been noted. James Hargreaves was a weaver living 
near Blackburn. His daughters were the " spinsters " who 
supplied the woof for his loom. In the old-fashioned wheel 
then in use only one thread could be spun at a time. A 
large wheel was turned with the hand, and the thread was 
spun on a horizontal spindle. One day a wheel in motion 
was accidentally upset so that the spindle stood perpendicu- 
larly. Hargreaves noticed that the wheel continued to spin. 
He then constructed a wheel which he called a " spinning 

NlVER 20. 



322 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1767 

jenny/' in which the spindles were vertical and which would 
spin eight threads at once, thus doing as much work as eight 
persons could do in the old way. For a time he kept it 
secret, but at last his jealous fellow-weavers, hearing of his 
invention, broke into his house and destroyed it. But they 
could not destroy his idea. He built another and took out a 
patent; and in a short time every weaver in the county had a 
" spinning jenny." 

A similar story could be told of the barber, Eichard Ark- 
wright, who invented an improved spinning machine in 1769 ; 
and of Samuel Crompton, the inventor of the "spinning 
mule." Crompton and his wife worked in secret and had 
a dark loft to conceal the " mule " in case of trouble. When 
his neighbors saw that his yarn commanded a higher price 
than theirs, they wanted to get into his house and learn his 
secret. When he could keep it no longer, he gave his inven- 
tion to the public. The manufacturers, to whom he gave it, 
agreed to pay him for it, but he never received more than 
$500 for a machine worth hundreds of thousands of dollars. 

Edmund Cartwright's invention of the power loom, near the 
close of the century, completed the machinery for cloth mak- 
ing. In 1807 Parliament gave him £10,000 for his inven- 
tion. There were then 2,000 looms in Great Britain. In 
1833 there were 100,000. Twenty years later there were 
350,000. These figures show the progress of cloth making. 

James Watt made the greatest invention of all, for it fur- 
nished the power to move all the machines we have mentioned. 
In 1763 he was an instrument maker in the College of Glas- 
gow. A toy called an " atmospheric engine " was given him 
to repair, and out of it Watt made the steam engine. The 
toy that Watt took to repair consisted of a cylinder in which 
the piston was forced upward by steam. Then a jet of 
water was turned on, condensing the steam, and the pressure 
of the atmosphere forced the piston down. But the cold 



1785] 



GEORGE III. 



323 



water not only condensed the steam, but cooled the cylinder, 
so that the steam entering the cylinder the second time was 
partly condensed and 
wasted. Watt made a 
cylinder in which the 
steam was made to enter 
first above and then be- 
low the piston, the pipes 
being opened and closed 
at the proper moment by 
an automatic sliding 
valve. The used steam 
was pumped out into a 
tank of cold water to be 
condensed. He covered 
the cylinder with felt to 
keep it hot, and thus pre- 
vented loss. He inven- 
ted the governor, a mech- 
anism for keeping the 
speed of an engine uni- 
form. 

The North of Eng- 
land was turned, from a 
rude and barren country, 
into a very hive of indus- 
try by the steam engine. 
Before this, the south 
had been the place where new ideas sprang up. The north 
had been the source of rebellion and ignorance. It had been 
frequently turned into a desert to subdue the restless inhabit- 
ants. Now, the great coal and iron mines have made it the 
chief manufacturing part of Britain, and Newcastle, Man- 
chester, Liverpool, and Sheffield are great and flourishing 




Watt Discovering the Power 
of Steam. 



324 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1789 

cities. .All of this was made possible by the invention of 
James Watt, who began to study steam when as a boy he 
watched the vibration of the cover on his mother's teakettle 
as it simmered and sang on the kitchen hearth. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How did the personal rule of George III. bring on the American 

Revolution? 

2. In what ways did the French alliance help the Americans? 

3. How can you explain the " Gordon Riots "? 

4. Was the loss of the American colonies an advantage or a loss 

to England? Explain your answer. 

5. What were Adam Smith's ideas about trade? How far were they 

true? 

6. How do the industries of a country depend upon easy transporta- 

tion? 

7. Show the importance of Watt's invention. 

8. How did the inventions of this period affect the English people? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Hyder All Bright, History of England, Vol. III. (see index) ; 

Sarkar, History of India. 

2. Warren Hastings. Macaulay, Essay on Hastings; Hume, His- 

tory of England (Student's Series), pp. 636-642. 

3. Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, and Cartwright. Smiles, 

Self-Help. 

4. Brindley and Watt. Smiles, Lives of the Engineers. 

B. From the French Eevolution to the Peace of 

Amiens, 1789-1802. 

The French Revolution marks the -uprising of the people 
against kings. In the days of William the Conqueror, the 
nobles shared the powers of government with the king. 
Then the nobles were gradually put down and kings arose, 
like Louis XIV. and Henry VIII., who had absolute power. 
Against this power of the king, the people of England rose 
in 1641-1649, when they put King Charles to death and es- 
tablished the Commonwealth. Again in 1688 they drove 



1795] GEORGE III. 325 

James II. out of the country, and established William and 
Mary on the throne. In 1776, the Americans revolted against 
George III., who attempted to get back the power that other 
kings had given up. And now, in 1789, comes a great revo- 
lution of the French people against their king Louis XVI. 
This event is important in the study of English history, 
because it had a great influence on England. 

The French people had long been taxed heavily and un- 
fairly, while the French nobles and clergy were untaxed. The 
people had no share in the government, and were despised by 
the king and nobles. But French soldiers returning from the 
American war, filled with the spirit of liberty, helped to rouse 
them to assert their rights. The government, on account of 
its lack of money, was forced to call together the States 
General, including the nobles, the clergy, and representatives 
of the people; they had not met for more than 200 years 
before this. The representatives soon took matters into their 
own hands, put to death the king and his young queen Marie 
Antoinette, massacred or drove out of the country all those 
who favored the old form of government, and established a 
republic. The rule of the republican leaders was marked by 
a " reign of terror," during which many thousands of people 
were arrested and put to death. Finally the people rose 
against these leaders, and a new government of five men, called 
the " Directory," was set up in 1795. This proved displeasing 
to the Paris mob, who wanted to return to the old days of 
"terror," and 40,000 of them advanced to attack the conven- 
tion that was forming the new government. The task of 
defending it was entrusted to a young artillery officer named 
Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon planted cannon at the cor- 
ners of the streets leading to the hall where the convention 
was sitting, and when the mob approached mowed them down 
with grapeshot. The new government was established. 

The English People had at first looked upon the revo- 



1797] GEORGE III. 327 

lution with favor. They thought that the French would 
establish an orderly parliamentary government like their own. 
But the French had been for centuries without any share in 
the government, and they knew only how to destroy, not how 
to build up. The French republicans not only wanted a 
free government for themselves, but gave notice that they 
would establish republics throughout Europe. They began 
war on the neighboring nations. They boasted that they 
would send 50,000 men to England to help the republicans 
there to put down the king. They declared war against Eng- 
land in 1793, and seized the Austrian Netherlands (formerly 
Spanish), after defeating an English army there. This broke 
a treaty which had been made by France and was a reason 
why England should declare war. Another very important 
reason was that the spread of French rule interfered with 
English commerce. 

The English Plans of War provided for the command 
of the sea and the defense of the coast against invasion. 
Napoleon had become commander in chief of the French 
armies. He defeated the Austrians, drove them out of 
Italy, and forced them to make a treaty of peace. Prussia 
also was frightened into making peace. Spain and Holland 
had joined France, for they saw in the strength of the new 
French republic an ally against their great rival, England. 
England therefore stood forth alone against France and her 
allies. 

The Battle of St. Vincent prevented the invasion of Eng- 
land. A Spanish fleet was coming out of the Mediterranean 
to join the French and Dutch vessels for an attack on the 
English coast. As it was rounding the southern point of 
Portugal, it was met by Sir John Jarvis and Commodore 
Nelson with fifteen vessels. Nine Spanish ships were cut off 
from the main body. The rest were attacked, and four of 
them were captured. When Nelson boarded one of them, the 



328 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1797 



Spanish officers crowded about, and gave up so many swords 
to him that he had to give them to one of his men to hold, who 
went away with an armful. 

Two Serious Mutinies broke out in the English navy at 
this time (1797). The first began at Spithead near Ports- 
mouth. The sailors had just cause for complaint. The ra- 
tions furnished them were very bad, and sometimes they could 
not get even bad food, because the officers 
appointed to provision the ships would man- 
age to keep part of the money. The rate of 
wages was not enough to support them. Be- 
sides this, the discipline was brutal; men 
were flogged for trifling causes and hung up 
by the heels for serious offenses. The sailors 
now refused to work until they should receive 
better food, better wages, and better treat- 
ment. Lord Howe, a great favorite with the 
sailors, went among them and told them 
that their grievances should be remedied. 
When the sailors were convinced that the 
Admiralty meant to do what Lord Howe 
promised, they returned to their duty and there was no more 
trouble. 

The Second Mutiny was at the Nore, in the mouth of the 
Thames. Under the lead of a disorderly man named Parker, 
the sailors not only demanded all that had been granted to 
the sailors at Spithead, but wanted to choose their own com- 
manders and run the ships to suit themselves. The fleet of 
Admiral Duncan, who was watching the Dutch fleet at the 
Texel, also mutinied. The Dutch fleet was planning to at- 
tack the English coast, and it was a time of great danger. 
All Duncan's ships but one sailed away and joined the mu- 
tineers; but he managed to make the Dutch think his fleet 
was still near by running up signals from time to time, pre- 




'An English 
Sailor. 



1798] 



GEORGE III. 



329 



tending to keep up communication with it. Finally Parker 
was caught and hanged. The other sailors were treated 
fairly; their just demands were granted, and only a few of 
them were punished. 

The Battle of Camper down was fought as soon as Duncan 
got his ships together again. Camperdown is on the Dutch 
coast. The English admiral ran his ships between the Dutch 
fleet and the shore, to prevent their escape. He then at- 
tacked them and came off with twelve prizes. There was no 
more fear of a Dutch invasion. The French fleet was soon 
to meet the same fate. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, after winning a great reputation by 
victories over the Austrians, now formed the plan of attack- 
ing England through her Indian colonies. In 1798 he took 




The Battle of the Nile. 



a large army and fleet to Egypt and made himself master of 
the country. Egypt commanded the Eed Sea and the eastern 
Mediterranean. Having possession of it, France could send 



330 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1798 

ships down the Eed Sea and across the Indian Ocean to India 
in far less time than England could send ships around the 
Cape of Good Hope. 

Bonaparte's fleet had seized the island of Malta on its way 
to Egypt, and was now at Aboukir Bay, near one of the mouths 
of the Nile. Nelson had been watching for it, sailing up and 
down the Mediterranean. At length he sighted it off the 
Egyptian coast. 

The Battle of the Nile was a repetition of Admiral Dun- 
can's stratagem at the Texel. Nelson boldly sailed with half 
of his fleet between the French ships and the shore. By this 
means he prevented their escape. He attacked in the 
evening, and all night the battle raged. When morning came 
eleven French ships had been taken or destroyed. Only two 
came off safe. Napoleon himself soon returned to France, 
and two years later, in 1801, the French army was defeated 
by the English at the battle of Alexandria, and compelled to 
leave the country. Thus Napoleon's grand scheme for strik- 
ing a blow at India by way of Egypt came to nothing. 

In India, also, during this time, the English had been suc- 
cessful. Tippoo Sahib, Hyder Ali's son and successor, rely- 
ing upon French aid, had begun an attack on the English in 
the Carnatic. But General Harris pursued him to his cap- 
ital, which he took by assault. Tippoo was killed, and part of 
the kingdom of Mysore, with an immense amount of silver, 
gold, and jewels, fell into the hands of the English. From 
this time on the English power in India increased rapidly. 
It was only a few years before Arthur Wellesley defeated the 
Mahrattas in the bloody battle of Assaye (1803), and brought 
all the Mahratta Country under British control. 

Napoleon's Return to Paris (November, 1799) found the 
Directory in confusion. He caused a new government to be 
formed, consisting of three men called "consuls." Napoleon 
became the First Consul. He soon conceived the idea of con- 



1801] GEORGE III. 331 

quering all Europe. He at once crossed the Alps with 40,000 
men and defeated the Austrians in the battle of Marengo. 
The Emperor Francis I. was compelled to make a peace which 
extended the boundary of France to the Ehine, and made 
changes in Italy and the Netherlands. 

The Battle of the Baltic (1801) . During the Eevolution- 
ary War in America, England claimed the right to stop 
the vessels of neutral nations on the high seas and search them, 
to see whether they were carrying any war supplies for Amer- 
ica. The neutral nations Holland, Eussia, Sweden, and Den- 
mark joined in a league, called the Armed Neutrality, to resist 
this search. As England continued to search vessels, Eussia, 
Sweden, and Denmark, in 1801, refused to allow any English 
vessels or property to enter or leave their ports. England 
upon this began war. Sir Hyde Parker and Nelson were sent 
with a fleet to destroy the ships of the league. 
, The Danish fleet was assembled at Copenhagen. The ap- 
proach to the harbor, at the entrance of which the fleet was 
drawn up, was defended by six hundred guns. The channels 
leading up to the harbor were narrow and dangerous. Nelson 
chose the more dangerous one, because it was less strongly 
defended. Three of the twelve British ships that made the 
attack went aground, but with the nine remaining ones he 
sailed close up to the Danish line. Of all his battles Nelson 
said this was the fiercest. So doubtful was the contest that 
Admiral Parker hoisted the signal to discontinue action; but 
Nelson's signal for "close action" was flying. When an 
officer called his attention to the admiral's signal, he put his 
telescope to his blind eye and said, " I really can not see the 
signal." "Leave off action!" he muttered, "FU be hanged 
if I do!" and turning to the officer, he said, "Foley, mind 
you keep my signal up !" 

After four hours, the Danish fire slackened. Half their 
ships were wrecked; their flagship was on fire and soon blew 



332 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1801 

up. Nelson sent a messenger on shore, offering a trace, which 
the Danes were glad to accept. Yon may imagine the joy 
with which England received the news of this victory. The 
poet Thomas Campbell has written a stirring ballad abont it. 

Of Nelson and the North, 

Sing the glorious clay's renown, 
When to battle fierce came forth 

All the might of Denmark's crown, 
And her arms along the deep proudly shone. 

By each gun the lighted brand 

In a bold, determined hand, 

And the Prince of all the land 
Led them on. 

Like leviathans afloat 

Lay their bulwarks on the brine, 
While the sign of battle flew 

On the lofty British line : 
It was ten of April morn by the chime : 

As they drifted on their path, 

There was silence deep as death, 

And the boldest held his breath 

For a time. 

* * * 

Again ! again ! again ! 

And the havoc did not slack, 
Till a feeble cheer the Dane 

To our cheering sent us back ; 
Their shots along the deep slowly boom, 

Then cease — and all is wail, 

As they strike the shattered sail ; 

Or in conflagration pale 
Light the gloom. 

The battle of the Baltic settled the war against the Armed 
Neutrality. The Swedish fleet declined to fight and sailed 
away, while Nelson went on to attack the Eussians. But 
the accession of a new czar, Alexander L, changed the policy 
of Eussia. He was an enemy of Napoleon, and made peace 
with England. It was agreed that the right of search should 
continue, with some restrictions. 



1802] GEORGE III. 333 

The Treaty of Amiens (1802) put an end to the wars 
with Napoleon for a time. It had been pretty clearly set- 
tled, even to the satisfaction of that determined general, that 
England was supreme on the ocean. He might go on win- 
ning victories on the continent of Europe, but he never 
afterwards seriously threatened England by sea. The peace 
only meant that the two countries were willing to stop fight- 
ing for a time. As Napoleon was still aiming to rule over all 
Europe, and as England, in defending her commerce and try- 
ing to preserve the balance of power, would not admit his 
right to seize other countries and acid them to France, it was 
plain that war must soon be resumed. 

Affairs in Ireland. The Irish Parliament was controlled 
by Protestants who made laws against the Catholics, for- 
bidding them to vote, hold office, or keep arms. The Cath- 
olics had to pay tithes to the English Church. The land on 
which they lived belonged either to the English Church or to 
landlords who collected their rents by means of agents who 
treated the Irish peasants with the greatest cruelty. 

Irish rebellion broke out soon after the beginning of the 
French Revolution. Men's minds everywhere were stirred 
in behalf of liberty. The Irish made an attempt, with the 
help of the French, to get entire independence of England, 
and they came very near succeeding. 

Wolfe Tone, a young lawyer, succeeded in uniting the Irish 
Catholics and the Irish republicans into one great society, 
which was called the "United Irishmen." He then ar- 
ranged with the French Directory to send a strong army to 
set up a republic in Ireland. A French expedition of thirty- 
eight ships sailed for Bantry Bay at the end of 1796, but 
General Hoche, who was to lead it, was delayed, and a hurri- 
cane compelled the ships to return to Brest. 

The United Irishmen, however, soon formed a new plot. 
On May 23, 1798, the branches of this society throughout the 



334 HOUSE OF HANOVER [179S 

country were to fall upon the English and sweep them from 
the island. Then, in union with a French army, they would 
be able to bid defiance to England. It was a reasonable 
scheme; but there were traitors among them who sold infor- 
mation to the British government. Some of the leaders were 
arrested, and an English army began to disarm the conspira- 
tors. In Ulster alone it took from them 50,000 muskets, 70,- 
000 pikes, and 72 cannon. Still, on the appointed day, the 
Irish societies rose in various parts of the country and com- 
mitted many acts of cruelty, burning, plundering, and mur- 
dering. The only fights worthy the name of battles were at 
Arklow and Vinegar Hill (map, p. 232). But the vengeance 
taken by the English army, the " bloody Orange dogs " as the 
Irish called them, was frightful. Hundreds were lined up and 
shot. Fitzgerald, the Irish leader, made a desperate attempt 
to escape arrest. He killed two men with his dagger before 
he was shot. Wolfe Tone was condemned to death, but com- 
mitted suicide in prison. 

Union With Ireland. Order was again established, but 
Pitt believed that there was no cure for the troubles in Ire- 
land except to unite the two Parliaments. In 1800, the Act 
of Union passed both Parliaments. Ireland was to send 
thirty-two peers and one hundred commoners to the British 
Parliament, and to pay two seventeenths of the taxes. 

Pitt also urged the making of a law to give the Catholics 
liberty of worship, and the same rights to hold office that the 
Protestants had ; but the stubborn king declared that any one 
supporting such a bill would become his personal enemy. 
Pitt therefore resigned, and his friend, Henry Addington, be- 
came premier. Addington's plan was to keep peace with 
France at any sacrifice. When Bonaparte's continued ag- 
gression again made war unavoidable, he resigned. Pitt was 
recalled and remained in office until his death, which took 
place in 1806. 



1803] GEORGE III. 335 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How did the English people regard the French Revolution? Why? 

2. What war in England may be compared with the French Revolu- 

tion? Why? 

3. How far was England's claim to the right of search just? 

4. Do you favor Pitt's plans in regard to Ireland or those of the king? 

Why? 

5. What were the reasons for the wars between England and France? 

6. Show the importance at this time of the geographical situation of 

England. 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Napoleon in Egypt. Hume (Student's Series), pp. 652-655. 

2. Battle of the Baltic. Campbell, Poem, Battle of the Baltic; 

Russell, Nelson, Chap. XIV. 

3. How Nelson lost his Aem. Creighton, Stories of English History. 

4. Battle of the Nile. Fitchett, Deeds that won the Empire, pp. 

99-112 ; Brooks, Heroic Happenings, pp. 72-83 ; Hemans, Casa- 
bianca. 

C. The Defeat of Napoleon. 

Napoleon and England. The Peace of Amiens gave 
Napoleon time to think over the strength of England. She 
had given him some hard blows in Egypt, in the Baltic, and 
in India. But his victories over the Austrians, and his 
knowledge that the other countries hated England on account 
of her colonies and trade, soon led him to provoke a new war. 
He felt that if he could conquer England he could conquer 
the world. And " eight millions of people/' he said, " must 
yield to forty millions/' England, for her part, knew that 
Napoleon was determined to destroy her colonial empire and 
to ruin her commerce; and she was ready to fight in their 
defense. 

On beginning the war in 1803, Napoleon seized and threw 
into prison about 10,000 English travelers in France, though 
he had not warned them to leave the country as is customary 
when two countries begin war. He soon stirred up another 



336 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1805 



rebellion in Ireland under Ko-bert Emmet. But Emmet was 
seized and hanged, and the rising was quickly put down. 

An Attempted Invasion of England. All the fighting 
men in England were called out and drilled, to repel an inva- 
sion for which Napoleon was making 
great preparations, and Nelson, Colling- 
wood, Calder, and Cornwallis were sta- 
tioned with strong fleets off the French 
coast, to keep watch so that no French 
ships could cross the Channel. 

Finally Napoleon thought he had 
hit upon the right plan. There was a 
Spanish fleet at Cadiz, and 
French fleets at Toulon, Brest, 
and Boulogne. His admiral, 
Villeneuve, was to sail from 
Toulon, pick up the Cadiz fleet 
on the way, and then steer for 
the West Indies, pretending to 
attack the English possessions 
there. This would draw Nelson in pursuit and weaken the 
blockade at Brest and especially at Boulogne, where Napo- 
leon's army was mustered. When Nelson was far enough 
away Villeneuve was to sail back suddenly and take in the 
French fleet at Brest. This would make him strong enough 
to brush away the English ships at Boulogne, and to take the 
French army safely to Ireland and England. 

Villeneuve succeeded in the first part of the plan, and 
Nelson followed him to the West Indies. But when he re- 
turned to France and approached Brest, he was met by an 
English fleet and took refuge in the safe harbor of Cadiz. 
Napoleon was at Boulogne, anxiously scanning the horizon 
seaward to catch a glimpse of Villeneuve. The appointed 
day came, but no fleet. Napoleon, who was now Emperor of 




Napoleon. 



1805] 



GEORGE III. 



337 



the French, wrote to his admiral: "England is ours. Let 
us avenge six centuries of shame. We are ready. All is em- 
barked. Come within twenty-four hours and all is finished." 
Medals were already struck in honor of the expected victory. 
The future government of England was all planned. But 
Villeneuve did not come. Ten days the impatient general 
waited, and then, with curses on the cowardly and inefficient 
admiral, he broke up his camps and headed his armies toward 




Battle of Trafalgar ; Death op Nelson. 

Germany. Before the year was out, he had won the battle of 
Austerlitz and had again humbled Austria to the dust. 

The Battle of Trafalgar. Villeneuve, under Napoleon's 
orders, sailed out of Cadiz with forty ships. Nelson arranged 
his twenty-seven ships in two columns, which struck the 
French battle line at right angles, cutting it into three parts. 
It was a terribly dangerous plan for the vessels leading, 
but made victory more certain, since fresh ships were all 
the time coming up. Before the battle, Nelson put up his fa- 



338 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1805 

mous signal at the mast-head of his flagship, the "Victory": 
u England experts every man will do ]iis duty." English 
sailors never did it belter. Out of (he whole fleet of the enemy, 
only eight ships escaped, and these were afterward burned in 
the harbor el' Cadiz. But Nelson, who had fought more than 
a hundred bailies, was shot by a rifleman from the rigging 
of a French ship, and died in Ihe moment of victory. Na- 
poleon ;ind Nelson are the greatest names of this period, the 
one unconquered on Ihe Land, the other unconquered on the 
ocean. But Napoleon rough! to make other nations his slaves; 
Nelson fought to protect his own nation against invasion. 

" Whorovor brave deeds are treasured and told, 
In the talcs of the deeds of yore, 
Like jewels of price in a chain of sold 
Are (lie name and (lie fame he bore. 

Wherever Hie track of our English ships 

Lies while on the ocean foam, 
His name is sweet to our English lips, 
As Ihe names of the flowers at home." 1 

Russia and Prussia had joined against Napoleon. But 
Prussia, was crushed in two great battles, and Napoleon 
marched his victorious army into Berlin. The next year 
tlu! Russians were completely overwhelmed. It seemed that 
nothing could stand against Napoleon's genius. These wars 
were ended by the treaty of Tilsit (1807). Napoleon met 
the czar on a, raft in the river Niemen. 

"Do you hate the English?" aslant the emperor. 

"As much as you do," replied the czar. 

"Then/' said Napoleon, " peace is soon made." 

All Europe was to be compelled by Russia and France to 
join in an alliance against; England. Russia was to look after 
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, while Spain and Portugal 
were left to Napoleon to deal with as he pleased. The Neth- 

'Imoih tin- poem "Nelson," by 10. Ncsbit. 



1807] GEORGE III. 339 

erlands and the various states of Italy and Germany were 
already under Napoleon's influence or control. 

George Canning was now the English Foreign Secretary, 
and believed in vigorous war measures against France. Learn- 
ing through his secret agents that Napoleon was planning to 
seize the strong fleet of the Danes to use against England, he 
sent an expedition to demand its surrender, agreeing to return 
it at the end of the war. As the Danes refused to give it up, 
Copenhagen was bombarded and burned and the fleet taken. 

Attacks on Neutral Commerce. The loss of the French 
navy had compelled Napoleon to allow neutral ships to do the 
carrying trade in French West Indian products. As England 
would not allow direct trade between these islands and Europe, 
United States vessels first took their cargoes to some home port, 
and then reshipped them to France. But in 1805 Great 
Britain refused to allow French West Indian goods to be sent 
from any American port to France, and began to search 
United States ships and seize them. Also, many sailors found 
on American ships, including some deserters from the British 
navy, were impressed into the British service. 

As Napoleon could no longer attack the English commerce 
on the ocean, he now attacked it on land. He issued the 
Berlin Decree after his victory over the Prussians. It for- 
bade all countries in Europe under French influence to trade 
with Great Britain. The British replied by their Orders in 
Council, declaring that all ports of France and her allies were 
blockaded, and that any vessel going to any of them would be 
captured unless it had previously touched at a British port. 
Napoleon then issued his Milan Decree, declaring that all 
neutral vessels that touched at any British port would be 
captured. The Americans were the chief sufferers from these 
laws, as they were the chief neutral nation engaged in trade. 
In 1807, nearly 400 American ships were captured and sold by 
England and France. 

NlVER 21. 



340 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1807 



Spain and Portugal now attracted the attention of Na- 
poleon. In August, 1807, he wrote to the Prince Kegent of 
Portugal, ordering him to seize all English property, and to 
close the ports of his country to English trade. He also sent 
a French army to enforce his orders. Instead of obeying, the 

entire royal family of 
Portugal emigrated to 
the Portuguese colony 
of Brazil. Soon after 
this Napoleon set up 
his brother Joseph as 
King of Spain, but the 
disgusted Spanish rose 
in rebellion and sent 
to England for help. 
Canning was not slow 
to help them. Im- 
mense quantities of 
military supplies and 
money were sent at once. Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had 
fought in India., and Sir John Moore, who had fought in 
Egypt, were sent with 20,000 men. 

The Peninsular War was a struggle for independence on 
the part of Spain and Portugal, aided by England, against 
Napoleon. It began with a series of victories over the French. 
The Spanish compelled a French army of 17,000 men to 
surrender at Baylen, and advanced toward Madrid. "King 
Joseph " fled north of the Ebro. The English under Welles- 
ley met a French army on the road to Lisbon and defeated 
it with a loss of 3,000 men at Yimeiro (1808). 

Napoleon now appeared in Spain with an army of 200,000 
men. He entered Madrid in triumph and reestablished Joseph. 
The Spanish were not good soldiers; when they should have 
gathered to the aid of the English, now under Sir John Moore, 




Spain and Portugal. 



1810] GEORGE III. 341 

they ran away and left their allies to fight alone. The 25,000 
English could not fight 200,000 trained soldiers, led by the 
greatest general of the age. Moore therefore retreated to the 
coast. At Corunna he beat off the French so that the army 
could embark safely; but he himself was killed. The poet 
Wolfe has told the story of his burial : 

" We buried him darkly at dead of night, 
The sods with our bayonets turning ; 
By the struggling moonbeam's misty light, 
And the lantern dimly burning. 

" Slowly and sadly we laid him down, 

From the field of his fame fresh and gory ; 

We carved not a line and we raised not a stone, 

But we left him alone with his glory." 
* 

During Napoleon's absence in Spain, Austria had declared 
war, and he was soon forced to lead away the best of his 
troops to the Danube. He met the Austrians and defeated 
them for the fourth time at Wagram (1809). 

Three weeks later, Wellesley defeated the French army in 
Spain in the bloody battle of Talavera. The Spaniards were 
again treacherous, and Wellesley resolved to have nothing 
more to do with them. He withdrew to Portugal and forti- 
fied the hills around Lisbon, which he declared no French 
army could take. For his skillful conduct of the war he was 
rewarded with the title of Viscount Wellington, and later 
he became the Duke of Wellington. 

Massena, Napoleon's best general, was now sent to Portu- 
gal with 65,000 men. The English and Portuguese laid waste 
the country, driving all the sheep and cattle with them, and 
retired within the forts. The French marshal examined the 
works carefully, and the longer he looked at them, the less 
he liked them. For a month he remained, and food began to 
fail. He then retreated into Spain, but so terrible was the 



342 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1810 

famine that 30,000 of his men starved and died. Portugal 
was safe. 

Wellington now advanced and won several victories. At 
this time Napoleon withdrew part of his forces for the in- 
vasion of Eussia, and Wellington entered Madrid, driving out 
King Joseph. In June, 1813, the French were again defeated 
at Vittoria and driven over the Pyrenees. Spain was at last 
cleared of the enemy. 

Napoleon's Russian Campaign. In the summer of 1812 
Napoleon led a great army through Eussia to Moscow. He 
defeated the Eussians in battle, but soon after his arrival 
Moscow burst into flames in a hundred places. The Eussians 
had decided to burn their capital and destroy their enemies 
by famine. The French began a retreat late in October. 
The severe Eussian winter came on, food was lacking, and the 
armies of the czar hung upon the rear and cut off small bodies 
of the French. When Napoleon reached the borders of Ger- 
many, he had lost 300,000 men. Marshal Ney was the last 
man to cross the Niemen. Some one asked him who he was. 
"I am the rear guard of the French army," said he. Na- 
poleon hurried to Paris and by great efforts raised another 
army of 200,000 men. But his enemies rose up behind him. 
Eussia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden put an army into the 
fields of Germany larger than his own. 

Leipzig was the battlefield of the nations. In a battle 
lasting three days, Napoleon was defeated and driven back 
to France (October, 1813). 

He was now forced to resign the throne of France, and to 
retire to the island of Elba, near the western coast of Italy. 
In September, 1814, delegates from the various countries of 
Europe met at Vienna to rearrange the map of Europe, which 
Napoleon had so roughly disturbed. While they were busy 
at this work, news came that he had escaped from Elba and 
was in Paris levying soldiers. It is said that the commissioners 



1815] 



GEORGE III. 



343 



looked at one another in astonishment, and then burst into a 
shout of laughter. It was the last surprise that he had in store 
for his enemies. 

The Battle of Waterloo was the closing event of Na- 
poleon's career. The French people had rejoiced when they 
heard that their emperor, who had led them to so many vic- 
tories, was on the way to Paris. The old soldiers nocked 
around him with the greatest enthusiasm, and he soon had an 
army of 250,000 men. But the allies had a million soldiers 
ready to pour over his frontiers and crush him. This required 
time, and Napoleon did not mean to let them unite their 
forces. 

The English and Prussians had armies in the Netherlands 
under Wellington and Bliicher. Napoleon suddenly crossed 
the French frontier and attacked Bliicher at Ligny and drove 
him back twenty miles. Turning northward he started for 

Wellington, whose head- 
quarters were at Brus- 
sels. The English gen- 
eral took his position 
about two miles from the 
village of Waterloo, 
drawing his army up in 
squares along a highway, 
and defending the ap- 
proach by two strong 
Battle of Waterloo. p 0s t s on the right and 

left of his lines. The two armies were of nearly the same size, 
— 70,000 men each, — but the French had veteran troops 
and more guns. All day the French beat upon the English 
squares, which stubbornly held their ground. Toward night 
Blucher's Prussian army arrived on the field and struck 
Napoleon's flank. The French fire weakened, and the whole 
English army moved forward and drove the French in utter 




Mont St.Jean ^, ll% 

»«# * ' Iotfe 

Sainted %,#* J £ I 

■*& Bluchers 




A r IW ' "'^ < Planchen^jHt y V' 

ria l Guard 



344 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1812 

rout from the field. Each army lost about 25,000 men. It 
was Napoleon's last battle. He was exiled to St. Helena, 
a lonely island in the south Atlantic, and Louis XVIIL, the 
brother of that Louis who had been executed during the revo- 
lution, was restored to his throne. 

The War of 1812. During England's struggle against 
Napoleon, a second war was waged with America. In 1812 
the United States declared war on Great Britain because of 
her interference with American commerce (p. 339), her im- 
pressment of American seamen, and the frontier attacks by 
Indians under British influence. Most of the battles of this 
war were fought upon the ocean and along the southern bor- 
der of Canada. The wonderful thing about the war is the 
great number of victories that the Americans won against 
the finest navy in the world. The American aim was better 
than the British, and besides this, the British made the same 
mistake that they made in the Eevolution. They regarded 
the Americans as inferior to them in every respect, and did 
not take the same care that they did in fighting battles in 
Europe. 

The battle of New Orleans (January, 1815) taught them 
this error in a very emphatic way. An army of British vet- 
erans tried to storm intrenchments defended by volunteers 
from Kentucky and Tennessee, and were driven back with 
the loss of over 2,000 men, as against an American loss of 71. 

The war was closed by a treaty signed at Ghent in De- 
cember, 1814, in which nothing was said about the causes of 
the war. But Great Britain impressed no more American 
sailors; and the right of search was quietly dropped, and in 
1856 was declared unlawful. 

Results of the Wars. England had been at war with 
France and other nations nearly all the time from 1789 to 
1815. She was now at peace, and the suffering caused by the 
war began to receive attention. The national debt had in- 



1820] GEORGE III. 345 

creased from $5,000,000 to $4,500,000,000, that is, it had be- 
come nine hundred times as great. The yearly interest 
amounted to $160,000,000. To raise this amount and to 
meet the expenses of government, taxes were very heavy. 
Nearly everything that people used in daily life was taxed. 
Hundreds of men were ruined by the heavy taxes or by the 
effect of the wars on their business. Banks and factories 
closed, and thousands of people were out of work. 

The " Corn Law " passed in 1815 did not aim to produce 
revenue, but to keep up the price of grain in the interest of the 
landholding class. By it no grain was allowed to be brought 
into England till the price reached ten shillings ($2.50) a 
bushel. The next year there was a bad harvest, the price of 
grain rose, many people could not get food, and riots broke 
out all over the country, accompanied by the destruction of 
property and the stopping of business. 

Another cause of distress was the rapid introduction of 
machinery, throwing many out of employment. The people 
thought that the new machines were a bad thing for them. 
Night attacks were made upon the factories, and many ma- 
chines were destroyed. This led to riots, conflicts with the 
officers of the law, and the stopping of useful work. 

Demand for Reform. The Parliament was still con- 
trolled by the nobility and the landholders; the working 
classes had no representatives, and began to demand reform, 
thinking that many of their troubles could be cured if they 
were allowed to have some share in the government. 

The Criminal Laws were still enforced in the old harsh 
way. It was seen that these laws did not decrease crime, but 
no change had been made. Many bills were brought before 
Parliament by Sir Samuel Eomilly to make the penalties less 
severe, but the House of Lords voted them down. The " thief- 
takers" and constables were often ready to let criminals off 
for a bribe, and in many cases they actually encouraged crim- 



346 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1714 



inals, in order to get the rewards which the government paid 
for catching them. 

The Old King, George III., died in January, 1820, in 
his eighty-second year. For nine years he had been insane, 
and his son, who later became George IV., had reigned in 
his stead as Prince Eegent. 

Literature, under the Hanoverian kings, is marked by 
a great change. Men stopped writing about religion and so^ 
ciety, and revived the old romantic tales of the days of chiv- 
alry and of the border wars of England and Scotland. 

Sir Walter Scott was the greatest writer of this period 
of " romantic revival," as it is called. He collected and pub- 
lished three volumes of tales and 
ballads, which he called " The 
Minstrelsy of the Scottish 
Border." The "Ballad of 
p Chevy Chase" (p. 129) 
was one of these. He also 
h wrote poems on the basis of 
these tales. " The Lady of 
the Lake," "The Lay of 
the Last Minstrel," and 
" Marmion " are three of 
the best. He then turned 
Sir Walter Scott. his attention to fiction, and 

wrote about thirty "Waverley Novels" on historical and 
legendary subjects. "Ivanhoe" and "The Talisman" deal 
with Eichard's crusade and his return to England. " Kenil- 
worth " is a story of the reign of Elizabeth. " The Monas- 
tery " and " The Abbot " tell of the imprisonment and death 
of Mary Queen of Scots. These tales were the beginning of 
the kind of literature called " historical fiction," and are use- 
ful for fixing in the mind the characteristics of the historical 
periods with which they deal. 




1820] LITERATURE 347 

Lord Byron became Scott's rival and surpassed him in the 
field of romantic poetry. " Childe Harold," a poetic account 
of historic scenes and incidents in Europe, is his best poem. 
"I awoke one morning," said Byron after its publication, 
" and found myself famous." 

William Wordsworth, with Eobert Southey and Samuel 
Taylor Coleridge, was the founder of the " Lake School " of 
poetry. These poets lived at times in the picturesque Lake 
region of the northwest. It was their aim to write simple 
poetry about the people and occurrences of everyday life. 
Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner" is his most famous poem; 
" To the Cuckoo," " The Green Linnet " and " The Daffodils " 
illustrate Wordsworth's notion of what true poetry should be. 

Other Writers. Samuel Johnson, in 1755, completed a 
great dictionary of the English language. Oliver Goldsmith, 
like Walter Scott, wrote prose and poetry equally well. His 
" Deserted Village " describes the effects of the factory system 
on the country towns ; " The Vicar of Wakefield " is his mas- 
terpiece in prose. David Hume and Edward Gibbon were the 
great historians of the century. Hume wrote the " History 
of England." Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the Eoman 
Empire" has never been surpassed in the field of historical 
literature. William Eobertson ranks with Hume as the 
author of a " History of Scotland." 



QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How did the French government influence affairs in Ireland during 

this period? Illustrate. 

2. What was Napoleon's plan for invading England? Why did it fail? 

3. How did the French and English wars affect American commerce? 

Why? Explain the purpose of the Berlin and Milan Decrees 
and the Orders in Council. 

4. Why did England take part in the Peninsular War? 

5. Give the causes of the war with America in 1812. What impor- 

tant question was settled by it? 

6. How did the Napoleonic wars affect the English people? 



348 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1811 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Nelson at Trafalgar. Russell, Nelson, Chap. XIV. ; Edgar, 

Heroes of England, pp. 271-318. 

2. The Battle of Waterloo. Henty, One of the Twenty-eighth; 

Fitchett, Deeds that Won the Empire, pp. 223-288. 

3. The Berlin Decree. Colby, Sources of English History, pp. 289- 

292 ; Green, Short History, pp. '822-3. 

4. Reform of the Criminal Laws. Hume, History of England 

(Student's Series), p. 743; Gardiner, Student's History, p. 885. 

5. Sir John Moore. Creighton, Stories from English History, Chap. 

LI. ; Fitchett, Fights for the Flag, pp. 133-157. 

6. Wellington. Edgar, Heroes of England, pp. 336-70. 

D. The Struggle eor Keeorm. 
George IV., 1820-1830. 

George IV. had been in possession of royal power since 
his father's insanity began in 1811 ; the beginning of his reign 
was therefore marked by no abrupt changes. He was the 
worst of the Georges, a selfish, wicked man, always in debt, 
and caring only for his own pleasure. His father had tried 
to make him mend his ways, but succeeded only in receiving 
his hatred. 

A Conspiracy to murder the members of the Cabinet was 
discovered early in the first year of the reign. To explain 
this we shall go back to the last year of George III. 

The "Manchester massacre" (1819) grew out of the meet- 
ing of vast numbers of unemployed men in the manufacturing 
districts, who used to gather together to talk over their 
troubles. They had a sort of uniform, practiced military drill, 
and carried banners, very much as political parties do now. 
Their banners bore such mottoes as these : " Union and 
Strength," " Liberty and Fraternity," " Annual Parliaments, 
and Universal Suffrage." 

A great meeting was held at Manchester, at which a popu- 
lar reform speaker, named Hunt, was to address the people. 
A number of soldiers and a regiment of cavalry were at hand 



1828] GEORGE IV. 349 

to keep order. When Hunt rose to speak, one of the magis- 
trates got a mistaken notion into his head that the soldiers 
were being attacked, and called upon the commander of the 
cavalry to disperse the crowd. That officer understood that 
he was to lead a cavalry charge against them, and a trumpet 
sounded the order. His men rode their horses at full speed 
into the dense throng of men, women, and children, and cut 
them down with their swords, killing or wounding nearly a 
hundred. 

Severe laws were soon passed by Parliament to prevent 
persons practicing military drill, carrying arms, and using 
seditious language. The people thought they had been badly 
used, and their wrongs provoked the " Cato Street conspir- 
acy." A dozen or more desperate men planned to murder 
the Cabinet ministers at a certain meeting which was to be 
held at a private house in London. One of their number 
informed the government. The police seized some of the plot- 
ters in a building on Cato Street, and five of them were 
executed. 

Changes in Laws. After the excitement over this con- 
spiracy had died away, Parliament at last changed the criminal 
laws so that a hundred or more offenses, such as small thefts 
and misdemeanors, which before had been punished by hang- 
ing, were now punished by fine or imprisonment. 

The duties on raw wool and silk were lowered so that the 
English manufacturers could get material to keep their fac- 
tories going. Machine smashing, however, was kept up. In 
1826 every power loom in the town of Blackburn was broken 
by a mob of men who ignorantly thought machines the main 
cause of their misery. 

Two Great Reforms in Religious Matters were carried 
in this reign. The first was the repeal of the old Corporation 
Act and of part of the Test Act, passed in the time of Charles 
II., which prevented dissenters holding any office in public 



350 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1829 

or private corporations. The second reform was the passage 
of the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), which allowed 
Catholics to sit in Parliament and to hold all but a few of 
the highest offices. 

The man who secured this last reform was Daniel O'Con- 
nell, an Irishman of great eloquence and wonderful influence 
over men. He organized the Catholic Association, which was 
pledged to elect only Catholics to Parliament, and to continue 
to do so until they should be admitted. He worked faithfully 
in this great cause, as did also Eobert Peel, a member of the 
Cabinet. Finally Wellington, who was then prime minister, 
favored the measure because he feared that if the bill were 
defeated there would be another civil war in Ireland. After 
nearly three centuries of persecution and injustice, the Eng- 
lish and Irish Catholics at last gained nearly equal rights with 
the Protestants. 

Parliamentary Reform also was demanded by the people, 
and it was plain that the question could not be put off: much 
longer. The great cities that had sprung up through manu- 
facturing had no representatives, and people continued to 
desert the old country villages for the more profitable work 
in the cities. In Bute County, in Scotland, on one election 
day, only one man appeared to vote. He voted for himself 
and became a member of Parliament. Some villages had 
disappeared entirely; members for these were selected by the 
stronger party in the Parliament. It did not seem right that 
a few men should select all the members of the House of 
Commons, and that several millions should have nothing to 
say. 

Lord John Eussell now took up the cause of parliamentary 
reform. He had tried to take away the representatives 
from some boroughs where the votes were openly bought; 
but the very men who bought them were members of the 
House of Lords, and that body refused to pass his bill. In 



1826] GEORGE IV. 351 

1821 he managed to have the town of Grampound disfran- 
chised, that is, he had its right to vote taken away, because it 
elected for its two members the politicians who would give 
the most money. Lord Eussell had made a beginning in a 
great reform. 

The Great Influence of the French Revolution was 
seen in the reign of George the Fourth. All over Europe 
it had stirred up a war between republican government and 
monarchical government. The people in Portugal, Spain, 
Italy, and the Spanish colonies in America rose against their 
kings and demanded a share in the government. The kings 
of Europe were more frightened than at the time of the 
outbreak in France, for their own people were now against 
them. 

The Holy Alliance was a league of Eussia, Austria, Prus- 
sia, and France, to maintain the power of kings in the coun- 
tries of Europe and in their colonies. England refused to 
join it. In the Italian kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia 
the people drove out their kings, but Austria sent a strong 
army to put down the people, and made the kings more abso- 
lute than ever. A revolution in Spain was put down with 
the aid of French soldiers. But Greece, then a province of 
Turkey, carried on a struggle for freedom so long that at 
last England, France, and Eussia interfered to give her 
independence. Lord Byron and many other Englishmen 
fought for the Greeks from the beginning. Some of his finest 
poems are about Greek subjects. In the great battle of 
Marathon, centuries before, the Greeks had maintained their 
independence against the Persians ; and Byron wrote : 

" The mountains look on Marathon — 
And Marathon looks on the sea ; 
And musing there an hour alone, 

I dreamed that Greece might yet be free ; 
For standing on the Persians' grave, 
I could not deem myself a slave." 



352 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1823 

In Portugal, the people compelled the king to grant a con- 
stitution, providing for a parliament. Spain and France 
threatened to restore the absolute power of the king; but 
England sent a force to protect Portugal in her new govern- 
ment. 

The Spanish Colonies in America revolted when Na- 
poleon made his brother King of Spain, and after a long war 
they became independent republics. The Holy Alliance in 
1823 was considering the question of helping Spain to get 
back her colonies. Canning, who was then prime minister 
of England, proposed that the United States should join Eng- 
land in warning the Holy Alliance to let the Spanish colonies 
alone. But the United States government preferred to make 
its declaration alone. President James Monroe in his mes- 
sage to Congress, December 2, 1823, announced that if the 
European powers should make any attempt to oppress or 
control any independent country in America, the United 
States would consider it an unfriendly act. This meant that 
the United States would go to war, if necessary, to resist any 
attack by the Holy Alliance on the Spanish republics. The 
Holy Alliance decided not to offend both England and the 
United States, but to let the new republics alone. 

The Navigation Law was repealed in 1823. This law 
said that no goods could be brought to England except in 
English ships. The Americans had made a similar law in 
regard to England. The result was that English ships might 
come and carry away American products, but were not al- 
lowed to bring any goods with them. This made the cost of 
carrying freight twice as high, and both nations lost money 
by it. 

Along with reforms in politics and reforms in commerce 
came improvements of the greatest importance in the means 
of transportation. 

The First Railroads were built, about 1825, by George 



1825] 



GEORGE IV. 



353 



Stephenson, a poor Northumberland coal miner. He was 
employed in the coal mines in taking care of the pumping 
engine. While working at this, he thought of a plan of 
putting an engine on wheels, and making it turn the wheels; 
and he succeeded in making such a locomotive. This was 
able to do the work of drawing the coal cars far more cheaply 
and easily than it could be done by horses. He 
next got some rich men to help him, and built a 
short railroad between Stockton and Darlington. 
Later, the merchants of Liverpool and Man- 
chester assisted him in building a road connecting 
those cities. To build a railroad, the permission 
of the Parliament had to be ob- 
tained. Stephenson was as^ed how he 
expected to build a railroad over J^ ^ L > 
valleys and through hills. His 
answer 'was like that of Brindley 
on a like occasion : " I 
can not tell how I will 
do it, but I will do it." 

A report on the rail- THI 0CKET# 

road plan, read in the 

House of Commons, ended like this : " As for those who specu- 
late on making railways take the place of canals, wagons, 
stage-coaches, and post-chaises, throughout the kingdom, we 
deem them and their visionary schemes unworthy of notice. 
It is a gross exaggeration to say that a locomotive could be 
made to go fifteen miles an hour, and even if it should, the 
danger of bursting boilers and broken wheels would be so 
great that the people would suffer themselves to be fired off 
on one of Congreve's rockets about as soon as they would trust 
themselves on a machine going at such a rate of speed." But 
the bill allowing the railroad to be built passed, and Stephen- 
son's new locomotive, the " Kocket," was found to be able to 




354 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1830 

go at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour without hurting 
any one. 

During the next twenty-five years ten thousand miles of 
railroads were built and equipped in England at a cost of 
$2,000,000,000. 

Better Wagon Roads also were built at this time. A 
Scotchman named McAdam discovered how to make a road 
by covering the earth with broken stone to a depth of six or 
eight inches. The wagon wheels would gradually force the 
bits of stone together so as to form a hard surface. He also 
made the road higher in the center than on the sides, and dug 
ditches to carry off the water. Eoads made in this way are 
still said to be macadamized. 

George IV. Died in the summer of 1830. He was not 
missed, except agreeably. He had squandered millions of 
the people's money, and had stood in the way of every reform. 
Scarcely anybody in England had a good thing to say about 
him. His brother William, called the " Sailor King," suc- 
ceeded him. 

William IV., 1830-1837. 

The New King was a bluff, hearty old man of sixty-five 
when he began to reign. His life had been spent in the 
navy. He was a friend to the people, and was certain to 
use his efforts in their behalf. 

The Reform of the Parliament was now the one great 
question. Action on it was hastened by another revolution 
in France. The French king, Charles X., had disagreed 
with the Chambers, as the French parliament was called, and 
had tried to seize absolute power. The people took up arms 
against him, the royal army deserted to their side, and the 
king had to flee from the country. 

When the English people heard of this change in France, 
they felt like rising up and doing away with the Tory minis- 



1832] WILLIAM IV. 355 

try and the "rotten boroughs" by force. They might have 
done so, if the House of Commons had not begun now to 
do it for them. The Duke of Wellington was prime minister, 
and as he said there should be no reform at all, the House of 
Commons would not support him and he was forced to 
resign. 

A New Whig Cabinet was now chosen. Petitions poured 
in upon it from all parts of the country, urging reform. 
A reform bill was drawn up by Lord Kussell and introduced 
into the House of Commons. Many boroughs were to be 
entirely disfranchised, and many others were to send one 
member instead of two. Most of the one hundred and sixty- 
five places thus vacated were to be given to the counties and 
large towns of England. When it became evident that the 
House would not pass the bill, the Cabinet had the Parliament 
dissolved and a new election ordered. The Whig, or " Lib- 
eral " party, as it began to be called, was sure of support from 
the country. " The bill, and nothing but the bill " became 
the rallying cry at the elections. The Eeform Bill, slightly 
amended, was passed by the new House of Commons by a 
large majority. 

The Creation of Peers. The majority of the House of 
Lords, however, was opposed to the bill. This brought mat- 
ters to a standstill. The Cabinet asked the king to create 
enough new peers to carry the bill, and resigned when he de- 
clined to do so. Before the king could get any one to take 
the office of prime minister he had to promise to create the 
new peers if necessary. When the Lords found that new peers 
would be created to pass the bill, some of those that were op- 
posed to it remained away, and the Eeform Bill became a law 
June 4, 1832. 

Since the time of William IV. it has been the custom, 
whenever the House of Commons and the House of Lords are 
unalterably opposed, for the king's ministers to create enough 

NlVER 22. 



356 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1832 



peers, or declare such intention, to compel the House of Lords 
to pass the measure desired by the House of Commons. 

The Reform Bill in its final form not only abolished the 
rotten boroughs, thus doing away with old bribery system, 
but it gave forty-six of the large cities the right to elect 
sixty-eight members of Parliament, and it added thirty to 
the representatives of English counties, and eleven to the 
representatives from Ireland and Scotland. 




The Present Houses op Parliament. 

It also cured a greater evil than the rotten boroughs. 
Under the old system the right to vote was very unequally 
distributed. In some towns all the freemen voted; in others 
none at all. The new law gave a vote to every man living 
in a town or borough who paid an annual rent of $50. In 
the country all those owning or leasing a certain amount of 
land could vote. The bill added over half a million voters to 
the list. The nobility and the landholders were no longer to 
have control of the lawmaking machinery, which they had so 
long used for their own advantage. Now the great "middle 



1833] WILLIAM IV. 357 

class" of England, the merchants, mechanics, and farmers, 
were to control the House of Commons. 

The New Reformed Parliament met in January, 1833. 
The Liberal party had a large majority, but it was found that 
the members were older and wiser men than those of former 
Parliaments; and none of the bad results that had been pre- 
dicted by Wellington and other members of the House of 
Lords came to pass. 

Slavery Abolished. The slave trade had been stopped in 
1807. Since then it had been shown by some members of 
Parliament that slavery did not pay ; for it cost more to raise 
sugar in the West Indies, where slave labor was used, than 
it did in the East Indies, where wages were paid. In 1833 
slavery was abolished in all the colonies. The owners received 
$100,000,000 to compensate them for their loss. It was soon 
found that slavery had been only an evil, and that the slave- 
holding colonies benefited by the change. 

Other Excellent Laws passed by this Parliament met 
with general approval. One of these relieved the Irish Cath- 
olics from paying certain taxes for the support of the English 
Church. Another regulated the employment of children in 
factories, the first law of the kind made in England. An- 
other forbade flogging in the army. The first national ap- 
propriation of $100,000 was made for the aid of common 
schools. An important change was made in the poor laws. 
England was overrun with paupers and vagrants. The old 
laws had encouraged pauperism by giving too much help. 
The new laws were stricter. Less help was given, and the 
poor who really needed help were helped in such a way that 
they might be able to help themselves. 

The Monopoly of the East India Company was taken 
away by the Eeformed Parliament in 1833, and the Eastern 
trade was thrown open to all. This was found to be a great 
advantage to the country. Now all merchants could buy 



358 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1837 

and sell in India and China, and in less than ten years three 
times as many British goods were sold. The company stopped 
carrying on trade, but continued to govern the country as be- 
fore (p. 316) until after the great Indian Mutiny of 1857. 
Its rule had been greatly extended at the expense of the 
Mahrattas and the Burmese, and now included more than half 
of India. 

" Good King William " had passed his three score and ten 
years, and died in 1837. Up to this time, the kings of Eng- 
land, beginning with George I., had been rulers of Hanover 
also. But it was a law in Hanover that only males could 
succeed to the throne; therefore when William's niece, Vic- 
toria, became Queen of England, his younger brother, the 
Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover, thus sep- 
arating the two countries. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Account for the opposition to the Reform Bill. How was it finally 

passed? What evils did it cure? 

2. What does the demand for the Reform Bill teach us about the 

English people? Why did the Lords oppose it? 

3. Which law passed by the first Reformed Parliament do you think 

best? Why? 

4. How did the revolutions in France affect the English people? 

5. How did the English secure control of India? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Geokge Stephenson. Smiles, Life of Stephenson; Wright, Stories 

of American Progress. 

2. The East India Company. Hume, History of England (Stu- 

dent's Series) (see index) ; Sarkar, History of India. 

3. The Reform Bill of 1832. McCarthy, England in the XlXth 

Century, Chaps. IX., X. 

4. Daniel O'Connell. Lawless, Story of Ireland, pp. 379-389; 

Mowry, First Steps in the History of England, Chap. XXVI, 



XII. THE HOUSE OF HANOVER (Continued) 



A. Erom the Accession of Victokia to the End of the 
Indian Mutiny in 1858. 

Victoria, 183 7-1 901. 

At Kensington Palace, in 1830, the year of the coronation 
of William IV., his eleven-year-old niece, Victoria, was study- 
ing a table of the kings of 
England. " Mamma," she 
exclaimed, "I do not see 
who is to be the next sov- 
ereign of England, unless 
it is myself." Her mother 
had never told her that she 
was to become Queen of 
England, but allowed her 
to make the discovery for 
herself. Her father had 
died when she was an in- 
fant, but the wise and 
careful training she re- 
ceived from her mother 
bore fruit in the guiding 
principle of her rule, the 

Eleven-year-old Victoria. determination to do right. 

Victoria's Marriage took place three years after her acces- 
sion to the throne. Her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Co- 
burg and Gotha, became her husband. The marriage was 
highly pleasing to the people of England, chiefly because it 

359 




360 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1837 

was one of real affection and not for political reasons. Prince 
Albert received the title of Prince Consort, an honorary dis- 
tinction conferred upon him as the queen's husband, but the 
sovereign power remained solely with the queen. He became 
a member of the House of Lords and was made Secretary to 
the Queen, a very important office. He proved a. wise and 
prudent counselor and gave his whole attention to the interests 
of the country. He was the first man in England to see that 
the selfishness and strife of employers and laborers was hurt- 
ful to both. " Depend upon it," he said, " the interests of the 
classes are the same, and it is only ignorance that prevents 
their uniting for each other's advantage." He said that what- 
ever made the laborer better and happier would make the em- 
ployer better off, too. 

' The Victorian Age " was the most progressive period 
in the history of England. More was done than ever before 
to promote the comfort and enlightenment of the people and 
to give to every one a voice in the government. The charac- 
ter and reign of the queen afforded an example of virtue and 
goodness to the nation. Tennyson says of her : 

" Her court was pure ; her life serene ; 
God gave her peace ; her land reposed ; 
A thousand claims to reverence closed 
In her as Mother, Wife, and Queen. 

" And statesmen at her council met, 

Who knew the seasons when to take 
Occasion by the hand, and make 
The bounds of freedom wider yet 

" By shaping some august decree, 

Which kept her throne unshaken still, 
Broad-based upon her people's will, 
And compassed by the inviolate sea." 

The Chartist Movement was one of the early troubles of 
the reign. It was an attempt on the part of the workingmen 



1848] VICTORIA 361 

to get political rights. Daniel CfConnell helped them to draw 
up a list of their demands which was called the " People's 
Charter." Those who favored it were known as Chartists. 

The People's Charter contained six demands: manhood 
suffrage, vote by ballot, annual Parliaments, the division of 
the country into equal electoral districts, the removal of the 
property qualification for members of Parliament, and the pay- 
ment of salaries to members of the House of Commons. 

Some of the Chartists called themselves "physical force," 
others, " moral force " Chartists. The " moral force " men 
held meetings, formed clubs for discussion, and published 
newspapers, in order to convince others of the truth of their 
beliefs. The il physical force " men, to show their strength, 
were to bring a petition to Parliament signed by five million 
names, and carried by a million of the signers. There was 
great alarm in London and special care was taken to prevent 
violence. But the monster procession dwindled down to a 
dozen, and the monster petition was found to be filled with 
names gathered from old directories and gravestones. This 
ended the influence of the "physical force" men (1848). In 
time, however, all the demands of the charter, except annual 
Parliaments and the payment of members, were practically 
granted by acts of Parliament. 

The " Penny Post " of England owes its origin to Mr. 
Eowland Hill. Before 1840 the charge for carrying a letter 
was from one to two shillings, and was paid by the receiver. 
That was a large sum for the poor peoj)le, and few could 
afford to have letters written to them. The idea of reform- 
ing the postal system was suggested to Mr. Hill by a story 
told by Coleridge, one of the " Lake poets." 

One day as Coleridge was walking past a cottage in the 
Lake region, a postman brought a letter to the door. The 
poor woman to whom the letter was addressed said she could 
not pay the postage and returned it to him. Coleridge kindly 



3G2 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1840 

paid it for her, as she said the letter was from her brother, 
who had gone to work in London. She was unwilling that 
the poet should pay the money, and after the postman had 
gone, she showed him that the letter contained only a blank 
sheet. She said that her brother had adopted this method of 
letting her know that all was well with him. 

The story set Eowland Hill to thinking. He came to the 
conclusion that if postage were made cheaper so many more 
letters would be written that more money would come to the 
government than under the high rates. So many petitions 
came, asking for the trial of Hill's plan, that the Parliament, 
as an experiment, tried a four-penny rate. Soon after this, 
the rate was made a penny per half ounce. The result 
showed that Hill was right. The sender now paid the post- 
age by putting a stamp on the letter. Since that time, every 
country in the civilized world has adopted this plan. 

Dominion of Canada. A rebellion in Canada was going on 
when the queen's reign began. In both Upper and Lower 
Canada the upper house, or council, was appointed by the 
sovereign of England. The French people of 
Lower Canada were jealous of the English, 
and wanted to choose the council themselves, 
and refused to pay 
their saiaries. The 
rebellion was put 
down, and peace was 
made by joining the 
two provinces into 
OllC and bv "ivm * it Parliament Buildings, Ottawa, Canada. 

a freer government. Further jealousy, however, led to the 
adoption of a new plan about thirty years later. The two 
provinces were again separated, under the names of Ontario 
and Quebec, for purposes of local government; but together 
with other North American provinces they were formed into 




1843] VICTORIA 3G3 

a federal union, called the Dominion of Canada, with a gen- 
eral government nearly independent of Great Britain. 

An important event near the beginning of the reign led to 
the closer connection of England and America. Samuel 
Cunard established the first regular line of steamships between 
Great Britain and America (1840). 

The " Opium War " was fought to compel China to al- 
low English merchants to import opium into the country. 
The Chinese government had forbidden trade in opium, on ac- 
count of the bad effects of its use upon the people. But 
opium was a leading production of India, and after the 
Indian trade was thrown open to all, there were many British 
merchants who made a business of selling the drug in China. 
The Chinese government seized a quantity of the opium, and 
took means to prevent any more being landed. The British 
began war at once, in 1839. The Chinese were defeated, and 
were obliged to surrender the island of Hongkong and open 
five important ports to British trade. Besides this, they were 
compelled to pay $20,000,000 for the opium destroyed, and 
the expenses of the war. 

The " Eastern Question " also attracted much attention. 
As it is very important, let us see how England is concerned 
in it, A glance at a map of Europe will show you that 
Turkey controls the entrance to the Black Sea, and is favor- 
ably situated to send ships into the eastern Mediterranean. 
If a strong nation, like Eussia, should get control of Con- 
stantinople, she might be able to control both the Black Sea 
and the Mediterranean, thus cutting off England from her 
East Indian possessions. For this reason it is better for Eng- 
land to have Constantinople in the hands of a weak nation. 
But Turkey, through bad government and the unjust treat- 
ment of her Christian subjects, had come to be disliked by all 
Christian nations, particularly Eussia, since the illtreated 
Christians are members of the Eussian or Greek Catholic 



364 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1839 

Church. The " question," therefore, is this : If Turkey is 
to be driven out of Europe, what nation shall have her terri- 
tory, especially the part bordering on the Bosphorus? 

Mehemet Ali, the ruler of Egypt, was one of the vassals of 
the Turkish sultan, but had grown stronger than his master. 
He had conquered Syria, and had defeated every Turkish army 
sent against him. In 1839 a second war began between 
Mehemet and the sultan. The Turkish fleet went over to 
the Egyptians, and if Mehemet were allowed to go on he 
would soon be in possession of Constantinople itself. It did 
not suit the nations of Europe to have Turkey either too 
strong or too weak. So England, Austria, Prussia, and Eus- 
sia made Mehemet give up his Syrian conquests and let the 
Turks alone. Erance was not invited to take part in the 
affair, and became very angry with England on account of 
the slight. The truth was that Erance was friendly to Egypt, 
over which she hoped to have great influence. 

Lord Melbourne, the premier, with his cabinet, was forced 
to retire in 1841. 

His name suggests the Australian city named after him, 
founded in the first year of Victoria's reign (p. 401). Aus- 
tralia was first seen by Captain Cook in 1720. The first set- 
tlement was made in New South Wales at the time of our 
Eevolutionary War. For fifty years it was used as a place 
to which to banish criminals. In 1803 Tasmania, too, was 
occupied. Early in the nineteenth century, it was discov- 
ered that sheep would thrive in the Australian climate. In 
the year 1851 gold was found and immigrants from all parts 
of the world hurried there in search of wealth. The growth 
of Australia was rapid. Eive provinces grew up, which were 
finally, with Tasmania, joined in a federal government like 
that of Canada (1901). New Zealand was occupied in 1838, 
and became another flourishing British colony. 

Sir Robert Peel became prime minister on Melbourne's 



1842] VICTORIA 365 

retirement, and held office for five years. Although Peel was 
a Conservative, or Tory, he favored a further reduction of the 
duty on imports. He found that by lowering the tax business 
was increased so much that the government received more 
money than before. The manufacturers bought their supplies 
more cheaply, and furnished more employment for labor. 

The Retreat from Kabul. Terrible news from India 
reached England the year after Peel entered office. The 
rugged mountain passes of Afghanistan are the gateway to 
India from the north. Eussia being in power at the north end 
of the gateway, and England at the south end, it behooved each 
nation to look to the character of the " gate keeper." Eussia 
had sought the alliance of Dost Mohammed, who had lately 
driven from his throne in Kabul the old "gate keeper," the 
Shah Soojah. The governor-general of India thought it good 
policy to send an army to Afghanistan to set up Shah Soojah 
again. This was done. But the Afghans would not have 
Soojah, and rebelled. They surrounded the English force 
and compelled them to make an agreement to return to India. 

Dost Mohammed's son, Akbar Khan, was now leader of the 
Afghans. The English commanders were cowardly and in- 
competent, and foolishly gave up their arms to Akbar, on 
condition of being allowed to retreat in safety. They were 
15,000 in number, among them 4,000 English soldiers, the 
rest being natives of India, with some women and children. 
It was winter, and ice and snow covered all the country. In 
spite of Akbar' s orders, the Afghans lined the heights along 
the roads where the English had to pass, and shot down hun- 
dreds. Akbar now took charge of the women and children, 
and the English advanced to the next pass. But the Afghans 
kept up their attacks until all of the English force were killed, 
except one man, who from weakness lagged behind the rest 
and so escaped to tell the awful tale. 

General Pollock afterwards marched to Kabul, took revenge 



366 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1842 

upon the Afghans, and recovered the prisoners in Akbar's 
charge. But Dost Mohammed was sent back to reign in Ka- 
bul ; for it was now discovered, what should have been learned 
before, that it is not profitable to force a king upon an un- 
willing people. 

The Corn Laws now occupied the attention of the ministry 
at home. The duty on imported grain, as fixed by the " corn 
laws " then in force, was designed to keep the price up to two 
or three dollars a bushel for the benefit of the landholders. 
The higher the price of wheat, the more rent they could get 
for the land on which the wheat was raised. But the poor peo- 
ple who bought the bread had to pay the rent in the end. 

An Anti- Corn-Law League was formed by the manu- 
facturers in Manchester, the leaders of whom were Eichard 
Cobden, John Bright, and Charles Yilliers. Cobden had trav- 
eled widely, and understood matters connected with commerce. 
Both he and Bright were accomplished speakers and writers, 
and they soon made many people in England think as they 
did about the corn laws. 

An Irish Famine, coming at this time, added strength to 
the demand for the repeal of the corn laws. Half the people 
of Ireland had come to depend for food almost entirely on 
the potato crop. In the fall of 1845 a long continuance of 
cold, wet weather caused the potatoes to rot in the ground. 
The entire crop was a failure. A great cry went up to open the 
ports to food from abroad. Peel, the prime minister, decided 
that the repeal of the corn laws should not be put off any 
longer. But the landlords made great opposition. An oppos- 
ing party was formed, led by Benjamin Disraeli, called the 
Protectionist Party because they wanted to protect the English 
farmers. In spite of the Protectionists, a law was passed, 
through the efforts of Peel and Lord John Kussell, which left 
a light tax on grain for a few years, and then took it off alto- 
gether. Food was at last untaxed in Great Britain. 



1S54] VICTORIA 367 

This change, however, came too late for the starving Irish. 
Large amounts of money were raised for their relief, but the 
famine was so widespread that enough food could not be 
brought in time. The people streamed toward the towns and 
villages for help, and died in heaps by the wayside. When the 
famine ended it was found that the population of Ireland 
had sunk from eight to six millions. Of the two millions lost, 
about half had left the country, many of them going to the 
United States. 

Free Trade. The removal of the duty from food and raw 
materials was followed up in 1860 and 1872 by admitting all 
goods free of duty, except liquors, tea, coffee, and tobacco, 
thus making England practically a free-trade country. 

The First World's Fair was held in England in 1851. 
The plan was thought of and carried out by Prince Albert, 
who made the opening speech. An immense building of 
glass and iron, called the Crystal Palace, covering nine- 
teen acres, was erected for it in London. The nations of the 
earth sent exhibits. Alfred Tennyson wrote an ode which was 
sung at the opening. 

" Uplift a thousand voices full and sweet, 

In this wide hall with earth's invention stored, 
And praise the invisible universal Lord, 

Who lets once more in peace the nations meet 
Where Science, Art, and Labor have outpoured 

Their myriad horns of plenty at our feet." 

The Crimean War came from an attempt to solve the 
Eastern question (p. 363). It was so called because the 
greater part of the fighting was done in the peninsula of 
Crimea in the south of Eussia. 

The czar Nicholas I. had taken upon himself the task of pro- 
tecting the Christians who were under Turkish rule. He 
now proposed to England that they divide the territory of the 
" sick man," as he called Turkey, between them, and put him 



368 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1854 



out of the way by a quick war. When the English ministers 
declined this, he at once sent his armies to the Danube and in- 
vaded Turkish territory. The Turks defended their frontier, 
but their fleet was destroyed. This left the Black Sea in the 
control of Bussia, and Constantinople would soon be attacked. 
At this point (1854) England and France joined Turkey 
in the war in order to preserve the balance of power by pre- 
venting Eussia from gaining too much territory. The Eus- 
sians had in the Crimea a fortress of great strength, known 
as Sebastopol. This fortress afforded protection to the Bus- 
sian navy, and its capture would practically end the war, 
since it would leave the Eussian fleet at the mercy of the com- 
bined navies of France and England. 

The English and French landed a combined force of 
64,000 men on the coast north of Sebastopol. On the march 

southward the allies 
crossed the river Alma 
and drove the enemy out 
of their intrenchments. 
Soon the armies took up 
their positions around 
Sebastopol. The Bus- 
sians fiercely attacked 
them near Balaklava, 
October 25, 1854, and 
were gallantly repulsed. 
Some guns had been taken by the Eussians in their attack. 
Lord Cardigan, who commanded a brigade of light cavalry 
numbering about 600, was ordered to "retake the guns." 
The officer who carried the order supposed that the guns re- 
ferred to were those of the Eussians a mile or more down the 
road. To take these, meant to charge into the center of the 
Eussian army of 30,000 men, along a road lined with the guns 
of the enemy. The order was given to advance. The men 



SEA OF 
AZOF 




SCALE OF MILES 



The Crimea. 



1S54] 



VICTORIA 



369 




The Light Cavalry Charge at Balaklava. 

rode the length of the Kussian lines, drove them from the 
guns, and rode back — but "not the six hundred." Only 198 
returned. This famous deed has been made immortal by 
Tennyson's poem, " The Charge of the Light Brigade " : 

Half a league, half a league, 
Half a league onward, 
All in the valley of Death 

Rode the six hundred. 
" Forward, the Light Brigade ! 
Charge for the guns ! " he said : 
Into the valley of Death 

Rode the six hundred. 

" Forward, the Light Brigade ! " 
Was there a man dismayed? 
Not tho' the soldier knew 

Some one had blundered. 
Theirs not to make reply, 
Theirs not to reason why, 
Theirs but to do and die : 
Into the valley of Death 

Rode the six hundred. 



370 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1854 

Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon in front of them 

Volleyed and thundered ; 
Stormed at with shot and shell, 
Boldly they rode and well, 
Into the jaws of Death, 
Into the mouth of Hell 

Rode the six hundred. 



When can their glory fade? 
O, the wild charge they made ! 

All the world wondered. 
Honor the charge they made! 
Honor the Light Brigade, 

Noble six hundred ! 

Thousands of the English, soldiers fell sick and were sent 
to the hospitals at Scutari. When the severe Eussian winter 
came on, it was found that not enough provision had been 
made for the comfort of the soldiers and for the care of the 
wounded. The hospital supplies were in the holds of ships off 
Sebastopol, and the tents, blankets, and clothing for the sol- 
diers had been lost in a. storm that wrecked the fleet of trans- 
ports. Some curious blunders were made. A cargo of boots 
were all for the left foot, and mules for the hauling of sup- 
plies were delivered at posts in the hands of the Eussians. 
The havoc made by the cold and the storms of winter killed 
five times as many men as the bullets of the Eussians. The 
emperor Nicholas was accustomed to say that there were 
two generals on whom he could always depend, General Jan- 
uary and General February. 

Florence Nightingale, an English lady who had made a 
special study of hospital work, went to Scutari, with other 
women, and wrought marvelous changes in the methods of car- 
ing for the sick. This was the first time that women were 
regularly employed as nurses in war. 



1857] VICTORIA 371 

Sebastopol was Taken in the following year, and Eussia 
was ready to make peace. The forts in the Crimea were de- 
stroyed, and the Eussians were not to keep a war fleet in the 
Black Sea. Turkey was kept independent of ail interference 
on the part of Eussia. 

The Indian Mutiny began soon after the Crimean War. 
It was a rebellion that sprang up among the Sepoys, or na- 
tive soldiers, of whom there were about 300,000 in the British 
army in India. By this time nearly all of India, including 
Sind and the Punjab, had been brought under English control. 
About two thirds of the country belonged to the company, 
and the other third was ruled by rajahs, or native princes, 
under the company's influence. 

A new rifle had v been introduced among the Sepoys, using 
a greased paper cartridge, the end of which had to be bitten 
off before loading. Some of the Indian princes who had 
lost their thrones spread abroad the story that the grease 
used was a mixture of lard and tallow. The story was not 
true, but the Sepoys believed it. To the Hindu the cow is a 
sacred animal, while the Mohammedan looks upon the hog 
with utter loathing. The Sepoys were nearly all either 
Hindus or Mohammedans, and they outnumbered the English 
ten to one. They had heard, too, of England's war with 
Eussia. It seemed to be a time when they might regain their 
independence. On Sunday, May 10, 1857, the Sepoys at 
Meerut mutinied and killed their officers. They then hurried 
to Delhi, where there was living in retirement an old man who 
was a descendant of the Mogul emperors. They brought him 
out and saluted him as "Emperor of India/' 

The revolt quickly spread through the Ganges valley, and 
many English were slain. In the Punjab, however, the Brit- 
ish governor, warned by telegraph, put his Sepoys on parade 
and brought them in front of twelve cannon loaded with grape- 
shot, flanked by columns of British soldiers. A command to 

NlVER 23. 



372 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1857 



" stack arms " was given and obeyed. He then sent an army 
which took Delhi, but only after a siege of several months. 

At Cawnpur, meanwhile, the English had taken refuge in 
an old military hospital, and resisted every effort of the Sepoys 
to capture it. But there was little food, and the only well was 
outside of the walls, exposed to the enemy's fire. Many a life 
was lost in bringing water from that well. Finally the Sepoy 
leader, Nana, made up his mind that he could never take the 

fort, and he proposed 
to let the garrison go 
away in peace if they 
would surrender. 
There was no sus- 
picion of treachery. 
The English all 
knew this Nana; 
they had been enter- 
tained in his palace, 
and he had always 
appeared to be cour- 
teous and generous. 
Boats were brought 
in which they were to 
float down the 
Ganges to a post held 
by their friends. The 
people passed down a 
few stone steps to 
the river's edge, but no sooner had they commenced to go 
aboard the boats than a storm of cannon and musketry opened 
on them from the banks. Only four men escaped. 

Some of the boats drifted to the bank, and a hundred and 
twenty-five women and children, and several men, who had 
not been killed by the shot, were kept as prisoners. One night 




Monument at Cawnpuk. 



1857] VICTORIA 373 

five natives went into the prison house and murdered them 
all. The next day the bodies were thrown into a well near 
by, which is now marked by a beautiful monument. 

At Lucknow the English gathered into the Besidency, a 
fortified place containing the governor's house and the public 
buildings. The attack of the Sepoys was beaten off, but the 
place was closely besieged for five months. Many perished, 
but the brave remnant fought on and waited for relief. 

" Oh, they listened, looked, and waited, 
Till their hope became despair ; 
And the sobs of low bewailing 

Filled the pauses of their prayer. 
Then up spake a Scottish maiden, 
With * her ear unto the ground : 
' Dinna ye hear it? dinna ye hear it? 
The pipes o' Havelock sound ! ' 

" She knew the droning pibroch, 

She knew the Campbell's call, 
' Hark ! hear ye no' MacGregor's, — 

The grandest o' them all ! ' 

" Then a burst of wild thanksgiving 

Mingled woman's voice and man's ; 
' God be praised ! — the march of Havelock ! 
The piping of the clans ! ' " 1 

The coming of General Havelock's army saved the women 
and children at Lucknow from the fate that had befallen 
those at Cawnpur. The mutiny was soon suppressed by new 
troops sent from England. The government of India was 
now taken away from the old East India Company, and given 
to the British ministry. 

A War against China was in progress when the Indian 
Mutiny broke out. It was caused by the seizure of a Chinese 
Vessel sailing under the British flag. The Chinese governor 
at Canton, Yeh, took twelve Chinamen from the ship, on a 
charge of piracy, and refused to apologize for insulting the 

1 From " The Pipes at Lucknow," by Whittier. 



374 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1857 

British flag. Canton was bombarded by the British and 
French, and Yeh was made prisoner. It was a hard matter 
to tell one Chinaman from another, but Yeh was known by 
his enormous size. He was found hiding in a closet and made 
a vigorous resistance. But a British sailor got a firm grip by 
winding Yen's long pigtail around his hand, and held on while 
the fat prisoner was secured. 

Peace was to be made at Peking, the Chinese capital. But 
when the French and English ships tried to sail up the river 
to that city, they were fired on from the Chinese forts and 
driven off. Afterward, a French and British force entered 
Peking, burned the beautiful summer palace of the em- 
peror, and set up a monument on the ruins with an inscrip- 
tion in Chinese, warning the natives against further treacher}^. 
This was the first visit of foreigners to the Chinese capital. 
Peking had been supposed to be a very powerful city, but 
was found to be a tumble-clown sort of place without regular 
streets and pavements, and not nearly so large as had been 
thought. 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. What was the purpose of each* war in this period? 

2. Compare the Chartist movement with the uprising of the peasants 

under Wat Tyler. 

3. What is the " Eastern question"? Is it still as important as ever? 

Give your reasons. 

4. Mention the most important events in the history of British India. 

Why is each important? 

5. Why were the corn laws made? Repealed? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. The Retkeat from Kabul. Church, Stories from English His- 

tory, Vol. III., Chap. XXII. ; Henty, For Name and Fame. 

2. Relief of Ltjcknow. Lowell, poem, The Relief of Lucknow; 

MacKenna and O'Shea, Brave Men of Action, pp. 483-515. 

3. The Famine in Ireland. Kendall, Source Book, pp. 414-419 ; 

McCarthy, History of Our Own Times, I., pp. 93-110. 



1S59] VICTORIA 375 

4. Florence Nightingale. Fitchett, Fights for the Flag, pp. 322- 

333. 
5. 'Sir Henry Havelock. Edgar, Heroes of England, pp. 428-470; 

McCarthy, History of Our Own Times, I., pp. 232-237. 
6. Balaklava. Henty, Jack Archer; Fitchett, Fights for the Flag, 

pp. 282-292. 

B. From the Indian Mutiny to Victoria's Death. 

Just before the end of the Indian Mutiny, a change in the 
ministry was made on account of a dispute with France. 
The French had long before this tired of their king, had or- 
ganized a second republic, and then finally had fallen under 
the rule of a second emperor — Napoleon III. In 1858 an 
Italian threw at his carriage, in Paris, three shells containing 
a kind of powder that explodes by concussion. The explo- 
sion was so terrible that ten persons were killed and a hun- 
dred and fifty-six wounded. There was a great outcry among 
the French people because the assassin had obtained these 
bombs in England, and the emperor's secretary asked Lord 
Palmerston, who was then prime minister, to have a strict law 
made by Parliament for punishing such people. So Palmer- 
ston introduced a measure known as the Conspiracy Bill, 
which provided severe punishment for any one detected in a 
plot to murder. 

The British people did not relish the interference of the 
French in the business of a British Parliament, and the bill 
did not pass. Lord Palmerston was therefore forced to resign. 
Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli formed a new Cabinet. 

A Law Allowing Jews to Sit in Parliament was made 
at this time. The oath that every member had to take on en- 
tering Parliament contained the words "on the true faith 
of a Christian/' words which could not apply to a Jew. 
The form of oath was altered in such a way that these words 
were omitted. 

The new ministry also tried to pass another reform bill, 



376 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1859 

giving laboring men the right to vote; but it was defeated. 
Lord Palmerston became prime minister again, and remained 
in office till his death in 1865. 

The Civil War in America now came to add to the trou- 
bles of the working people in England. The manufacturers 
of cotton had their chief source of raw material suddenly cut 
off by the Federal blockade of Southern ports, and thousands 
of workmen in English cotton mills were thrown out of em- 
ployment. 

The Trent Affair. The Southern Confederacy wished to 
send representatives to the countries of Europe to enlist aid. 
James M. Mason and John Slidell were dispatched to Paris 
and London. They escaped through the blockade to Ha- 
vana, and there boarded a British, steamer, the " Trent/' f ot 
England. The United States steamship " San Jacinto " 
overhauled the " Trent," and the two envoys were forcibly 
taken prisoners. Lord Palmerston at once demanded a re- 
turn of the envoys and an apology, threatening war if re- 
fused. President Lincoln replied that the captain of the 
" San Jacinto " had acted without authority, and sent the 
envoys to England in another ship. 

About this time, Prince Albert died, at the age of forty- 
two. By his death the United States lost their strongest 
friend in England. He had favored the Union from the be- 
ginning of the war and had already done much to keep Eng- 
lish sympathy on the side of the North. His death was a 
great sorrow to the queen. From that time until her death 
she held no court and lived in seclusion. "The real queen 
died with her husband, and only her shadow remained." 

The sympathy of the British government (that is, the Cab- 
inet), and that of the merchant and manufacturing classes, 
was on the side of the South, while the lower ranks of the 
people favored the North. The workingmen of England felt 
that the North was fighting to set free millions of slaves, and 



1S05] 



VICTORIA 



377 




Blockade Runner. 



no amount of suffering, from lack of employment, could make 
them say or do anything in support of slavery. 

Blockade Runners, low-built, swift-sailing steamers, were 
fitted out by English merchants. These ships would sail into 
Southern ports in the _- — 
darkness, with sup- 
plies for the Southern - 
armies, and carry off 
a cargo of cotton. 
Many were captured by 
the Federal navy, but 
those that escaped 
made large profits. 

The Alabama Claims. The South also built or bought 
steamers in Great Britain, to plunder the merchant vessels 
of the United States. This was contrary to the law regard- 
ing neutral nations. The American minister, Mr. Adams, 
protested against it, but five of these vessels were sent out, 
manned partly by British sailors. The " Florida " and the 
" Alabama" were the most important of them. Their plan 
was to keep the British flag at the mast-head until they got 
near enough to the vessel they wished to attack; then they 
would suddenly run up the Confederate flag and compel the 
United States ship to surrender. In this way the "Alabama " 
captured seventy American merchant vessels. After the war 
was over the treaty of Washington was made with the United 
States, leaving the question of the payment to be made by 
Great Britain, for the property destroyed by the Confederate 
cruisers fitted out in that country, to a commission of five 
men who met at Geneva in 1872. It was decided that Great 
Britain should pay $15,500,000, to be divided among the mer- 
chants who had lost their vessels. 

The Question of Parliamentary Reform came up again 
at the close of the American war. Lord Palmerston died in 



378 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1865 

1865, the year of a parliamentary election. The Liberals car- 
ried the day, and Mr. Gladstone and Earl Eussell became 
leaders. Eussell was premier, and Gladstone the leader in the 
House of Commons. The reform bill which they proposed was 
defeated, and they resigned. Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli 
came again into power. The workingmen held great meet- 
ings and sent petitions to Parliament. The government 
saw that they were determined to have the right to vote given 
to them. Mr. Disraeli thought that he might as well have the 
credit of being the giver. After several attempts, a bill was 
made that was satisfactory, and it passed both houses in 1867. 
It practically gave the right to vote, in cities, to every man 
who owned or rented a house. 

The Education Act. Eobert Lowe, a member of Parlia- 
ment, said, " Now that we are to be ruled by the majority, the 
workingmen, we must educate our new masters." But a divi- 
sion in Parliament in regard to the Irish Church forced Dis- 
raeli and his ministry to resign, and it was left for Mr. Glad- 
stone's ministry, which began in 1868, to make better provision 
for the education of the people. An Education Act was passed 
in 1870, establishing free schools among the poorer population 
throughout the kingdom. A small fee was charged where the 
people could afford to pay. All children were compelled to 
attend, and the dense ignorance which had so long prevailed 
in the great cities began to disappear. In each town there 
was a School Board chosen to look after the new schools, 
to which the name " Board Schools " was therefore given. 
Women as well as men were allowed to become members of 
such boards, and some of the best people took an active inter- 
est in education. 

The Fenian Movement in Ireland had already given the 
government much trouble. The Eenian Brotherhood was an 
association of Irish and Irish-Americans for the purpose of 
making Ireland independent of England. Many Irish sol- 



1869] 



VICTORIA 



379 



diers who had fought in the American Civil War were mem- 
bers. Irishmen who had gained wealth and influence in 
America drifted back to the old country to help in the cause 
of Irish independence. A general insurrection was planned 
for February, 1867, but did not succeed. 

Mr. Gladstone's Policy. For centuries England had 
been keeping the Irish down by force. Mr. Gladstone now 




An Ikish Farmhouse. 

proposed to listen to their complaints and satisfy them. 
" Three great branches of the Irish Upas-tree/' he said, " I 
will cut down : the Irish Church, the Irish land system, and the 
Irish system of university education/' In the first place, the 
Irish were taxed to support the so-called Irish Church, a 
branch of the English Church, which they did not attend, 
and they also paid willing contributions to support the Cath- 
olic Church, which they did attend. In some Protestant 
churches no services were held because no one came; yet the 



380 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1869 

poor Irish farmer was taxed for their support. It is no won- 
der that Mr. Lowe called the Irish Protestant Church "a 
barren tree in an ungrateful soil ; it has no leaves, no blossoms, 
no fruit. Cut it down." It was cut down by a law which 
abolished all church rates, or taxes, in Ireland (1869). After 
this, all churches there were to be supported by the voluntary 
contributions of their members. 

The Irish land system was the next "great branch" that 
Mr. Gladstone attacked. The most of the land was owned by 
English landlords who lived at a distance. It was let, by the 
year, to the small farmers, who could be evicted whenever the 
landlord pleased. If the farmer made improvements on his 
land, the landlord could turn him out and get more rent 
from some one else, and the old tenant lost the time and money 
that he had spent in making the improvements. A law was 
now passed which made the landlord pay the outgoing tenant 
for all the improvements that he had made. This act did 
some good, but did not satisfy the Irish farmers, who wished 
to own their farms and stop paying rent. 

Mr. Gladstone did not succeed in cutting off the third 
branch, — the university system, by which the Catholics were 
prevented from obtaining a higher education, — but he did 
make several other reforms. 

The Ballot Act was passed in 1872. Before that time 
men had voted openly for members of Parliament, so that it 
was known for whom each one voted. For this reason men 
were often afraid to vote as they wished, fearing the power 
of their landlords or employers. The secret vote by ballot 
stopped this evil. 

Important Changes in Europe were made during the 
passing of these reform measures. A third French Eepublic 
and a new German Empire came into existence ; and the dif- 
ferent parts of Italy were united under one ruler. These 
changes were brought about by several wars carried on be- 



1878] VICTORIA 381 

tween 1859 and 1871. The union of the small German and 
Italian states, each into a strong nation, was worth all the 
struggle it cost; but while these countries, with France and 
Austria, were devoting their chief energies to war, the English 
were advancing in the arts of peace. While France and 
Prussia were engaged in the war of 1871, also, Eussia seized 
the opportunity to build a fleet in the Black Sea and fortify 
Sebastopol again; and England alone could not interfere. 

Mr. Disraeli, who was later made Earl of Beaconsfield, 
became premier in 1874. For six years he carried on the gov- 
ernment with a great display of power abroad. " Imperial 
policy/' this was called; but his enemies called it "jingo 
policy/' taking the name from a comic song written in ridi- 
cule: "We don't want to fight, but by jingo, if we do, 
we've got the ships, we've got the men, and we've got the 
money, too." 

It was during this period that the queen formally took the 
title of "Empress of India" (1877); this was a suitable 
expression of the relations that had long existed between 
England and India. 

The Eastern Question was brought up again by the mas- 
sacre of Christians in Turkey. Eussia declared war and de- 
feated the Turks in 1877-8. But Beaconsfield thought the 
terms of peace were too favorable to Eussia; and a congress 
of the European powers was held at Berlin to consider the 
matter. Through the influence of England and some other 
nations, Turkey was allowed to keep more territory and 
power than she otherwise could have held; still, several of 
the old provinces of Turkey were made independent. Eng- 
land at this time received from Turkey the island of Cyprus, 
which Beaconsfield thought was important on account of its 
being near the route to India. 

Egypt. Among the foreign enterprises of Lord Beacons- 
field was the purchase of nearly half the stock of the Suez 



382 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1878 



Canal Company. This canal had been built by the French 
engineer De Lesseps. It was opened in 1869. The Khedive 
of Egypt sold his share, which was nearly half the entire 
value of the canal, to the British government for $20,000,000. 
The English people were delighted with the transaction, be- 
cause the canal is of the utmost value to their commerce. The 
purchase gave England some right to interfere in Egyptian 




Suez Canal. 

politics, and she has gradually extended her power until 
Egypt is to-day practically a British province. 

Another Invasion of Afghanistan (1878) was made un- 
der General Eoberts. Several battles were fought, in which 
the British were successful, though they lost heavily. A 
force under Gen. Burrows, however, was defeated and be- 
sieged in Kandahar. Then came General Boberts's wonder- 
ful march across the mountains from Kabul to relieve this 
force (1880), an achievement that made him famous. The 



1S79] 



VICTORIA 



383 



Afghans were defeated, but, to the disgust of the officers, an 
order came from Lord Beaeonsfield to retreat and give up the 
ground that the English had won. 

The War with the Dutch South African Republic was 
the most disgraceful attempt of the premier to force British 
rule on unwilling 
people. The Dutch 
had originally settled 
Cape Colony, which 
was a halfway sta- 
tion on the way to 
their East Indian 
possessions. The 
Dutch colony was 
built up between 
1650 and 1806, 
when the British 
seized it 




o 

CAPE TOWN 

C. of Good Hope 



100 200 300 



The Boer Republics (1899). 

Some years later English settlers began to arrive; 
but many of the Dutch colonists, or Boers, disliked their new 
neighbors so much that they moved farther north and east. 
The British government followed them, however, and annexed 
Natal (1843) and the country along the Orange Eiver (1848). 
Many Boers then migrated across the Vaal Eiver and founded 
the republic known as the Transvaal. England acknowledged 
their independence (1852) and the independence of the 
Orange Free State (1854). In 1877 the government of the 
Transvaal was in a very bad condition. Some of its people, 
favoring English rule, said that England ought to take pos- 
session of the country and restore order. An English agent 
at once declared the Transvaal a part of the British Empire. 
The English now took up a quarrel between the Boers and 
the Zulus, which ended in the capture of Cetewayo, the Zulu 
king, and the reduction of Zululand to a British province. 
After the Zulu war the Boers of the Transvaal became dis- 



384 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1880 

satisfied, and set up. for themselves the new independent gov- 
ernment of the South African Eepublic. In the war that 
followed the successes were all on their side. At Heidelberg 
a hundred British were shot down with the loss of one Boer. 
Several other attacks of the British were almost as disastrous. 
Their last and greatest defeat was at Majuba Hill. Six hun- 
dred British troops had fortified themselves on the top of the 
hill, overlooking the Boer camp. The Boers, four hundred 
in number, stormed the hill and surrounded the British, 
killing or capturing half of them with a loss to themselves of 
one killed and five wounded. During this time Mr. Glad- 
stone had again become prime minister. He made a treaty of 
peace with the Boers of the Transvaal, again acknowledging 
their independence, but reserving to Great Britain the control 
of their relations with foreign countries. 

Affairs in Egypt were marked by success in the north and 
by disaster in the Sudan. A rising against Europeans in 
Egypt (1882), led by Arabi Pasha, an officer in the Egyptian 
army, resulted in the bombardment and destruction of Alex- 
andria by the English. This was followed by the battle of 
Tel-el-Kebir, where Sir Garnet Wolseley defeated Arabi Pasha 
and took him prisoner. The Khedive has continued to be the 
nominal ruler of Egypt, but since 1882 England has really 
been in supreme control. 

The Sudan is the great country south of Egypt and west 
of Abyssinia. The Egyptians, during Lord Beaeonsfield's 
rule, had extended their authority into this region, and several 
garrisons were established at Khartum and other places. 
These garrisons were threatened by the rising of a new 
" Mahdi," or prophet, among the Arabs of the Sudan. The 
fanatical Mohammedans fought with great bravery and de- 
feated an Egyptian army sent against them (1883). Glad- 
stone's ministry then sent General Gordon, called " Chinese " 
Gordon from his successful work in putting down a great re- 



1885] 



VICTORIA 



385 



MEDITERRANEAN 



bellion in China, to withdraw the garrisons from the Sudan. 
While waiting in Khartum for English troops which did not 
come, Gordon's army was 
massacred by the Mahdi and 
his followers, who were treach- 
erously admitted into the fort. 
The weakness of the Glad- 
stone government in support- 
ing Gordon angered the peo- 
ple, and he had to resign in 
1885. 

Reform Bills of 1884 and 
1885. Before Gladstone's res- 
ignation, however, he secured 
the passage of the third great 
reform bill, which gave the 
franchise to the laboring 
classes in the country as well 
as in the cities, adding two 
and one-half millions to the 
voting population. A year la- 
ter, the kingdom was divided 
into districts, each one electing, as a rule, one representative 
to the House of Commons. These acts gave the House 670 
members: 72 from Scotland, 103 from Ireland, and the rest 
from England and Wales. 

The Election of 1885 resulted in a victory for the Liberals. 
Gladstone again became prime minister. A strong Home 
Rule party had sprung up in Ireland, under the leadership of 
Charles Stewart Parnell, called the Nationalists. Their 
object was to repeal the Act of Union passed in 1800, and 
have Ireland governed by an Irish Parliament sitting at 
Dublin. The land reform act passed in 1870 had not worked 
well, and Gladstone now proposed a law to lend £50,000,000 




Egyptian Sudan. 



386 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1886 

to the Irish tenants to enable them to purchase their farms of 
the landlords. This bill lacked thirty votes of passing, and 
Mr. Gladstone resigned. 

Election of 1886. The home rule idea was not favored 
in England, and the Conservatives won the next election. 
Lord Salisbury became premier, and continued in office until 
1892. During this period of six years several important 
measures were passed by Parliament. One of them abolished 
the fees paid by pupils in the elementary schools so that to-day 
England has a free school system. 

The Queen's " Jubilee " was celebrated in 1887, in honor 
of the fiftieth year of her reign. 

In contrast with the glory of the empire shown by the 
splendid pageants in London, was the general distress of the 
agricultural and laboring classes. The fall in the price of 
grain brought about by the repeal of the corn laws and 
by other causes had made the farmers unable to pay the high 
rents exacted by the landlords, and the government was 
obliged to give them assistance in purchasing the land, and in 
compelling the landlords to accept a lower rent. 

A Local Government Law was made for England and 
Wales in 1888, giving to each county the power to elect officers 
to manage its own local affairs. Ten years later this law 
was extended to Ireland to console the Irish for the defeat of 
their last Home Eule Bill in 1894. 

Mr. Gladstone became prime minister again in 1893, but 
retired from public life the next year, on the failure of his 
last effort to give home rule to Ireland. He had reached his 
eighty-fifth year, and had been over fifty years in the public 
service. Besides this, he had written many books on a variety 
of subjects, and was deeply interested in everything that was 
of interest to mankind. His noble and generous nature en- 
titled him to the first place among the Englishmen of his 
time, and to the title that they lovingly gave him, "the 



1898] VICTORIA 387 

Grand Old Man." He died four years after his retirement, 
and one year after the "diamond jubilee " .of the queen in 
celebration of her sixtieth year as Queen of England, and of 
her twentieth year as Empress of India. 

The Conservative Government that went into power soon 
after Gladstone's resignation in 1894, completely changed the 
policy in Africa. Mr. Gladstone said that the invasion of 
the • Sudan and the annexation of the Transvaal were entirely 
wrong, and that the Arabs and the Dutch should be allowed 
to carry on their government as they wished. Lord Salis- 
bury and the Conservatives said that the British flag should 
not be hauled down where it had been once set up. 

General Kitchener was sent into the Sudan from Egypt 
with a strong army of 25,000 men armed with magazine rifles 
and machine guns. He met the Arabs, numbering 50,000, 
near Khartum (1898). The mad rush of the enemy upon 
the English and Egyptians was met by a withering fire which 
mowed them down by thousands. Their short-range rifles 
could not reach the English. The supremacy of England in 
the Sudan was secured. 

The Boer War in South Africa called Kitchener from 
his campaign in the Sudan, on the very eve of its completion. 
Things had gone badly with the British, and the strongest 
generals of the empire were needed. Let us now trace the 
events that led up to this war. 

Cecil Rhodes. The most prominent man in South Africa 
at the time was Cecil Ehodes. When a young man he had 
left college and had gone to Africa for his health. While 
there he took an interest in the newly discovered diamond 
mines at Kimberley. The dry air of South Africa cured him 
of his lung disease, and he entered upon an active life. He 
'became the head of the De Beers Diamond Company, which 
obtained entire control of the Kimberley mines, producing 
millions of dollars' worth of gems every year. 

NlVER 24. 



388 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1889 

In 1889 Khodes obtained a charter for the British South 
Africa Company, securing the right of trade and government 
in a vast territory west and north of the Transvaal, stretch- 
ing away for nearly two thousand miles north of Cape Colony* 
His great ambition was to construct a railroad from Cape 
Town to Cairo and build up a great African empire for Eng- 
land which should stretch from Cape Colony to the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

The Transvaal and the Orange Free State, the two Boer 
republics, lay in the way of his plan. A serious quarrel soon 
arose with the Boers on account of the discovery of gold in 
the mountain ridges along the southern borders of the Trans- 
vaal. There was a great rush of English miners into the 
country, and in a few years the flourishing " Gold City " of 
Johannesburg was built up in the mining regions. 

The Boer government was unjust and narrow in its treat- 
ment of the " outlanders," as the foreign miners were called, 
who soon came to form the majority of the population. They 
paid two thirds of the taxes, but were not allowed to become 
citizens, and could neither vote nor have any share in the gov- 
ernment. In 1895 the foreign population of Johannesburg 
published a " Bill of Eights " which they demanded from the 
Boer government. 

The Jameson Raid followed immediately upon this de- 
mand. " Doctor " Jameson was an employee of Cecil Khodes. 
In January, 1896, he led a raid of seven hundred men into 
the Transvaal, expecting that the foreigners would rise, and 
that together they would seize the government. The raiders 
were met by a force of Boers and defeated. Those not killed 
were captured. The British government apologized for the 
raid and punished the leaders, but began to prepare for war 
by moving soldiers and supplies into South Africa. The Brit- 
ish soon demanded equal rights for Boers and British in the 
Transvaal. The demand was refused, and President Kruger 



1899] 



VICTORIA 



389 



demanded the withdrawal of British troops from the borders 
of the Transvaal, and the removal of all troops from Africa 
that had been brought in since the failure of Jameson's raid. 
When England refused these demands, the Transvaal and the 
Orange Free State declared war, for the two republics had 
agreed to stand or fall together. 

The Boers were Prepared, and sent their troops over the 
borders with a rush. In a few days, they defeated the British 




A Group of Boers. 



at every point, and laid siege to Kimberley, Maf eking, and 
Ladysmith, the three leading towns on the British frontier. 
Through the autumn and winter of 1899 the British met with 
frightful losses. The British general in chief, Buller, was 
no match for the swift movements of the Boer leaders. Volun- 
teers from Canada, Australia, and the British Isles hastened to 



390 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 



[1900 



Africa; 200,000 horses and mules were taken there from the 
United States and other countries to mount the British soldiers. 
Lords Roberts and Kitchener, " the heroes of Kandahar 
and Khartum" were now sent to Africa. The British out- 
numbered the Boers three to one, and drove them in retreat 
from Cape Colony. The besieged towns had held out bravely, 

and the Boer besiegers 
were driven away from 
all of them after 
sieges lasting 134, 216, 
and 119 days. The 
British army entered 
Bloemf ontein in 
March, and declared 
the Orange Free State 
a British colony. In 
June a similar declara- 
tion was made under 
the British flag in Pre- 
toria. The war was 
ended, with the excep- 
tion of guerrilla fight- 
ing on the part of sev- 
eral outlying bands of 
Boers. It had cost 
England thousands of 
soldiers and half a 

QUEEN VICTORIA. bmion of doUarg> 

Queen Victoria Died in January, 1901, at Osborne House, 
her winter residence on the Isle of Wight. No sovereign ever 
died more generally loved and respected throughout the world. 
The boast of the old Greek patriot could be truthfully made of 
her, " that no citizen through any act of hers ever put on 
mourning." 




INDUSTRY 391 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. Account for the attitude of the various classes of people in England 

toward the United States during the Civil War. 

2. What were the effects of each of the three great reform measures? 

3. What do you think of Gladstone's plans for curing the troubles 

in Ireland? 

4. In what ways was the purchase of the Suez Canal beneficial to 

England? How did it affect commerce? Colonization? 

5. What was the object sought in each of the wars of this period? 

TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. Gordon at Khartum. Traill, England, Egypt, and the Sudan; 

Mackenna and O'Shea, Brave Men of Action. 

2. The Dutch and English in Africa. Doyle, The Great Boer 

War; Lee, Source Booh of English History, pp. 369-385. 

3. Home Rule for Ireland. Kendall, Source Booh, pp. 391-400 ; 

McCarthy, History of Our Own Times, II., pp. 201-203. 

4. General Kitchener. Kendall, Source Booh, pp. 448-459; E. N. 

Bennett, The Downfall of the Dervishes; Doyle, The Great 
Boer War. 

C. Industry, Literature, Government, Empire. 

The Change from Hand Labor to Machinery, which 
took place during the early part of the nineteenth century, 
made such important changes in the life of the people and in 
the management of business, that this period is usually de- 
scribed as that of the " Industrial Kevolution." In the days 
of hand labor, each workman had his spinning wheels and loom 
in his own house. But after the inventions made by Har- 
greaves, Crompton, and Cartwright, the machines used were 
large and cumbersome, and required steam or water power to 
run them. They were also expensive to make, and one man 
could no longer obtain money enough to own such machines. 
As a result, many men had to put their money together, to 
build factories and equip them with the machinery necessary 
to carry on manufacturing processes. Thus the factory sys- 
tem and companies arose. The workmen could no longer 
spin yarn and weave cloth in the old-fashioned way at home, 



392 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1786 

because this work could be done so much more cheaply by 
machinery. An amount of cotton thread worth 13 shillings 
in 1786 was worth only 1 shilling in 1832. A hand-weaver 
who earned 25 shillings a week in 1800 could earn only &y 2 
shillings in 1830. As men could not make a living by hand 
work, they moved into the towns and went to work in the fac- 
tories. 

Two Classes grew up ; the capitalists, 'who owned the fac- 
tories and mills with the machinery, and the laboring class, 
who did the work. These two classes were, on one point, 
opposed to each other. The capitalist wanted to hire his men 
as cheaply as possible in order to make a greater profit on his 
goods ; and the laborer tried to get the highest price he could 
for his work. 

The laborers soon found that by joining together in a de- 
mand for shorter hours and higher wages they could force 
the manufacturer to listen to them, since without workmen 
he could not carry on his business. Such a union of men 
engaged in a common occupation is called a "trades union." 

If the employer refused their demands, the men would 
" strike f that is, would stop all work until an understanding 
was reached. The trades unions caused so much disturbance 
by their strikes that Parliament in 1800 passed laws forbid- 
ding workmen to combine against their employers to raise- 
wages. Labor unions did not stop, however, but continued 
to increase, and gradually grew into favor with the public. 
Laws against them have been repealed, and the rights of 
working people have been steadily upheld by their unions. 
There are now about 1,800 trades unions in Great Britain 
and Ireland. 

A Trade Council, or Federation, is a meeting of delegates 
from the separate unions, and assembles every year, or 
oftener, to consider matters affecting laboring men through- 
out the country. They have a parliamentary committee, who 



1903] INDUSTRY 393 

try to influence Parliament to pass factory acts (p. 357) and 
other laws favorable to the working people. In 1903, for 
instance, a trade council meeting at Sheffield petitioned Par- 
liament to reduce the length of a working day to eight hours. 

Associations of Employers have been formed to resist 
the demands of the trades unions. The Sheffield Manufac- 
turing Union was one of the earliest of these, formed in 
1814 to prevent a rise in wages. An association of the Em- 
ployers of Engineers was made in 1851 to resist the demand 
of the Union of Engineers for higher wages. In 1873 a 
National Federation of the Employers of Labor was as- 
sembled to consider the demands of the Federation of Labor 
Unions. Besides these combinations of employers against the 
workmen, other associations are made to lessen expenses and 
keep up prices. 

Trusts and Trade Combinations are the names by which 
such associations are known. To illustrate their working, let 
us suppose that there are several gas companies in the same 
city. Each company must have its own factories, pipe lines, 
offices, inspectors, and various employees. It may also em- 
ploy salesmen to go among the people, to induce as many as 
possible to use the gas of that one company. If one com- 
pany charges one dollar a thousand for gas, another may cut 
the price to ninety cents, and a third competing company may 
reduce it still further, until the price becomes so low that the 
business does not pay. ISTow suppose that all the companies 
join into one. Instead of three lines of pipe, they need only 
one ; one office will do the work that before required three. No 
salesmen need be employed, because the people will be obliged 
to buy the gas supplied or go 1 without. Thus by combining, 
the gas " trust," as we call such a union, will save a great deal 
of money in the cost of manufacturing and selling its product. 
As this trust has practically a monopoly, it may also increase 
the price of its gas, perhaps to one dollar and twenty-five 



394 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1860 

cents. In this manner some manufacturers in England, like 
many in America, have combined their interests; but gas 
works in England are now commonly owned and run by the 
city governments. 

Another Form of Trade Combination consists only in an 
agreement upon uniform prices, terms of sale, length of credit, 
discounts, and so on. Each manufacturer selling the same 
product on the same terms, it will not matter to the purchaser 
where he buys. If two merchants in the same village agree 
to charge the same price for goods, they will divide the busi- 
ness between them. 

Profit Sharing has, in many cases, proved a success in 
preventing strife between employers and their workmen in 
Great Britain. This consists in giving to the laborer a share 
of all the profit above a certain percentage on the capital in- 
vested. To illustrate, suppose that a certain factory with its 
machinery is worth a hundred thousand dollars. The owners 
agree to give to the employees half of the excess of the profits 
over ten per cent. If the annual profits should be twenty 
thousand dollars, the owners would reserve ten thousand for 
themselves, and divide five thousand, half the balance, among 
the laborers. This method gives the employees an interest 
in the business, and encourages them to work more earnestly 
for its success. 

The Victorian Age in Literature. The reign of Victoria 
was marked by a wonderful increase in the number of books 
and authors, due largely to improved methods of printing, 
and to the growth of newspapers and magazines. More people 
now write because they can get their thoughts before the 
public more cheaply and easily than in the earlier times. 
Then, too, there is a greater demand for books as people be- 
come more intelligent. 

Alfred Tennyson was the greatest poet of this period. His 
greatest works are " Idyls of the King/' stories of the time of 



1901] 



LITERATURE 



395 



Arthur (p. 31), and " In Memoriam," a long poem written in 
memory of his friend Arthur Hallam. But some of his 
shorter poems are better known : " The May Queen," " Locks- 
ley Hall," "The Charge of the Light Brigade," and many 
others are read and loved 
wherever the English lan- 
guage is spoken. 

Robert Browning and 
his wife, Elizabeth Barrett 
Browning, were poets of 
the first rank, but their 
poetry is more difficult and 
has not the widespread 
popularity of Tennyson's. 

Dickens. The greatest 
novelist since Scott is 
Charles Dickens. But 
while Scott revived the ro- 
mantic tales of the days of 
chivalry and of the border 
wars, Dickens wrote about Alfred Tennyson. 

real life and the humorous characters and incidents of his own 
time. He began the publication of his " Pickwick Papers " 
in 1836. The funny sayings of Sam Weller and Mr. Pickwick 
delighted everybody, and the book is still a favorite. " Oliver 
Twist," "David Copperfield," " Dombey and Son," and 
" Bleak House " are some of his best novels. 

William Makepeace Thackeray was a clever satirist of 
the social follies of his time, while Dickens was the good- 
natured humorist and friend. Thackeray's "Virginians" 
deals with incidents of the reign of George III. "Vanity 
Fair," "The Newcomes," and "Pendennis" are his best 
novels. He wrote also a " History of the Four Georges " and 
numerous essays and lectures. 




396 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1837 

The Chief Historians are Thomas B. Macaulay, Edward 
A. Freeman, James Anthony Froude, and Samuel Kawson 
Gardiner, all of whom wrote histories of their own country. 
Thomas Carlyle wrote also a history of the French Kevolu- 
tion, an event which influenced in so many ways the history 
of England. 

Among Philosophers and Scientists Herbert Spencer, 
Charles Darwin, Thomas Huxley and John Tyndall are the 
most important names. The first two are famous for their 
efforts to establish the theory of Evolution, which holds that 
all life is a development from lower forms. Huxley also 
studied animals, while Tyndall, following the methods of 
Bacon (p. 201) taught the world much about physical science. 
Lister revolutionized the practice of surgery by applying anti- 
septic methods. 

The British Government has, since the time of William 
III., been marked by a continual decrease in the power of the 
crown, and a continual increase in the power of the House of 
Commons. When that king adopted the plan of choosing his 
ministry, not from several parties, but from the party having 
the majority of supporters in the House, he laid the founda- 
tion of popular power. After the passage of the re- 
form measures (pp. 378, 385) giving the people the right to 
vote, it became possible for the will of the people to control 
the government more completely than in the United States. 

Parliament and Congress. If we compare the power of 
Parliament with that of the United States Congress, we shall 
find three important differences. 

First, there are practically no checks upon the power of the 
Common's. The veto power of the king is never used, the 
House of Lords seldom ventures to oppose a measure which has 
passed the Commons by a fair majority, and no British court 
can declare an act of Parliament unconstitutional, for Parlia- 
ment can at any time change the constitution. In Congress, 



1900] 



BRITISH GOVERNMENT 



397 



on the contrary, the Senate (which is not elected by direct vote 
of the people) has equal power with the House of Representa- 
tives, and is under no compulsion to vote for a bill that has 
been passed by the House. And if a bill is passed by the 
Congress, it may be vetoed by the President and can be passed 
over his veto only by a two-thirds vote of both houses. And 
finally, the courts have power, in any case brought before them, 
to nullify any act of Congress which breaks our written Con- 




The Meeting Place of the House of Commons. 

stitution; the Constitution can be changed only by a three- 
fourths vote of the States. 

In the second place it requires six years to obtain an en- 
tirely new Congress, since the senators hold office for that 
time. A new House of Commons is chosen whenever the 
Cabinet orders it. This enables the people of England to 
express their opinion on any given question at the polls at 
any time, and through their representatives to put it in the 
form of law. 

In the third place, the House of Commons exercises far 



398 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1900 

greater control over the executive branch of government than 
our Congress has. We have seen (p. 285) how the prime 
minister took the place of the king as the presiding officer 
of the Cabinet in the time of George I. With the exception 
of George III., no sovereign since William III. has exercised 
much power in the administration of the government. All 
real authority is with the Cabinet, who are in reality a com- 
mittee of the party having a majority in the House of Com- 
mons, and are responsible to the House for their actions. If 
iheir actions displease the House and it fails to support them, 
they must resign or order a new election. 

The Cabinet; King and President. The number of 
officers composing the British Cabinet is not fixed by law, 
but depends on the needs of the government at the time. 
There are eleven, however, that always have seats in it: the 
First Lord of the Treasury, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord 
President of the Council, the Lord Privy Seal, the Chancellor 
of the Exchequer, the First Lord of the Admiralty, and the 
five Secretaries of State (for Home Affairs, for Foreign 
Affairs, for the Colonies, for India, and for War) ; of these 
the premier is usually the First Lord of the Treasury. Be- 
sides these eleven, several other administrative heads, as the 
Secretaries for Scotland and Ireland, the President of the 
Board of Trade, or of the Local Government Board, are 
usually given seats in the Cabinet. • 

The Cabinet officers are members of Parliament; some be- 
long to the House of Lords, and some to the Commons. They 
frame and support bills affecting their several departments. 
Thus the Secretary for the Colonies would be expected to 
propose laws affecting the colonies ; and the Chancellor of the 
Exchequer, those for raising revenue. 

It will be readily seen that the powers of king and cabinet 
in England differ essentially from those of the president and 
his cabinet in the United States. The latter are strictlv 



1900] BRITISH GOVERNMENT 399 

executive officers and have nothing to do directly with law- 
making, except in the case of a veto (p. 397). The cabinet 
officers in the United States are responsible to the president 
rather than to Congress. Neither is the president responsible 
to Congress, but to the people only ; the design of the Consti- 
tution of the United States being to make the legislative and 
executive departments of the government as far as possible 
independent of each other. In England, on the contrary, 
there is no such distinction of legislative and executive powers. 
There, the man who makes a law is supposed to be the one 
best fitted to carry it out. 

The president selects his cabinet subject to the approval 
of the Senate; but he may choose any one he pleases. The 
king must choose as prime minister the man who leads the 
party that has a majority in the House of Commons, and the 
prime minister selects, subject to the formal approval of the 
king, the other members of the cabinet. 

Thus we see that the differences between the government of 
the United States and that of England are more numerous and 
important than the resemblances; and that government by 
the people is more direct and effective in England. 

The British Empire. The little island of Great Britain 
has become the center of the most extensive empire the world 
ever saw. Twelve million square miles of territory, or over 
three times the area of all Europe, and four hundred millions 
of people now own allegiance to it. This empire stretches 
all the way around the globe, lies in all the zones with every 
climate, and includes people of every race, religion, and color, 
living in all the stages of civilization. 

In the Government of her Colonies, the policy of Great 
Britain has, since the lesson taught by the American War 
(p. 317), been most liberal. We may conveniently group 
them into two classes. First are those that are almost entirely 
self-governing; in them the prevailing race is English-speak- 




ongitude 



401 



402 HOUSE OF HANOVER [1900 

ing. To this class belong the Dominion of Canada, New- 
foundland, the Australian Federation, Cape Colony, and New 
Zealand. In each there is a legislature elected by the people 
and a governor-general appointed by the British government. 
He governs through a ministry, or cabinet, representing the 
majority of the popular branch of the legislature. The min- 
istry is responsible for its actions to the legislature and not to 
the British government. But the British government has 
charge of the foreign relations of all the colonies, and makes 
treaties for them. 

Colonies of the second class are known as the "crown col- 
onies." These are more or less completely governed through 
the Secretary for the Colonies in London. There is in each 
of these a governor appointed by the crown, that is, by the 
British government. In some small establishments like 
Gibraltar and St. Helena, he is the only officer and has mili- 
tary power. In other colonies, like the Straits Settlements, 
there is a legislative council chosen by the colonial office to 
assist him. In Jamaica the people choose part of the legisla- 
ture, while in the Bahamas and the Bermudas it is entirely 
elected by them. In all the crown colonies the governor is 
responsible to the Colonial Office in London, and not to the 
people of the colony. 

India has a government of its own quite different from the 
rest of the empire. It is governed, through a governor-gen- 
eral and his council, directly by the Secretary of State for 
India, who is a member of the Cabinet. The secretary is as- 
sisted by a council of fifteen men experienced in Indian af- 
fairs. The governor-general also is assisted by a council, 
chosen partly by the secretary and partly by himself, who 
administer the affairs of India, and who have also some legis- 
lative power. Many states of India are still governed by 
natives princes, subject to the control of English officials; 
the rest of it is divided into a number of provinces. The 



1900] BRITISH EMPIRE 403 

provinces of Madras and Bombay have governor-generals 
chosen by the crown, while the rest are subject to lieutenant- 
governors chosen by the Governor-General of India. 

Protectorates and Spheres of Influence. Besides the 
above classes of colonies, a large part of the empire consists 
of protectorates, which, though not counted as British soil, 
have their foreign relations subject to British control. These 
protectorates are in various stages. In some, as Nigeria and 
British East Africa, chartered companies are in control; 
others are directly managed by the Foreign Office ; still others 
shade off into "spheres of influence," which are stepping- 
stones to protectorates and colonies. 

British Institutions in the Colonies. — It will be noticed 
that the colonial governments in their full development are 
faithful copies of the home government. The principles of 
the Magna Charta have been extended to the colonies, and the 
freedom that Englishmen enjoy at home is assured to them 
wherever the nag flies. It is these common institutions that 
bind the scattered parts of the British Empire together, and 
that have given rise to the idea of an imperial confederation, 
or union of the whole empire, governed by a common Parlia- 
ment sitting at Westminster. Whether this may be realized 
or not, it is certain that British colonial government has been 
productive of the highest good to mankind and that English- 
speaking colonists everywhere are loyal and take a patriotic 
pride in owning allegiance to the empire on which the " sun 
never sets." 

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT. 

1. How did the introduction of machinery and the factory system 

affect the English people? 

2. Mention some good and some bad effects of the organization of 

capital. Of labor. What benefits arise from profit sharing? 

3. What advantages does the British Cabinet have over the American? 

4. Would it be better to elect a new Senate every two years? Give 

reasons. In what way do the king and the president resemble 
each other? The prime minister and the president? 



404 



RECENT EVENTS 



[1901 



TOPICS FOR HOME READING. 

1. British Colonial Government. H. E. Egerton, Origin and 

Growth of the English Colonies, pp. 140-180. 

2. The British Flag. Cumberland, History of the Union Jack. 



D. Eecent Events. 
Edward VII., 1901- 

Albert Edward, the oldest son of Victoria, succeeded 
her under the title of Edward VII. His policy is one of peace. 
Through his efforts 
most liberal terms 
were granted to the 
Boer guerrilla bands 
(p. 390), in order that 
the entire British Em- 
pire might be at peace 
during the year of his |||| 
coronation. Besides 
pacifying the Boers, 
he favored measures to 
end the discontent of 
the Irish by making 
them a grant of 
money to purchase 
their farms of the 
landlords. 

Arthur J. Balfour 
became prime minis- 
ter on the resignation 
of Lord Salisbury in 
1902. He carried a 
measure giving £12,000,000 to Irish tenants, and also making 
government loans to them at a low rate of interest, thus en- 
abling every Irish farmer shortly to become his own landlord. 




Edwaed VII. 



1903] 



EDWARD VII. 



405 



A New Education Bill was also passed by the Balfour 
government, extending the national system of education to 
embrace all departments from the primary school to the 
university. State aid is given to public and private schools 
alike, and religious instruction is permitted. 

Affairs in China. A few years before Edward came to 
the throne, there was a scramble on the part of the nations 
of Europe to secure concessions. England, Eussia, France, 
and Germany secured grants or leases of ports and strips of 




Harbor of Hongkong, England's Chief Port near China. 

land. The forced concessions and the hatred of the Chinese 
for everything foreign led to the Boxer insurrection of 1900. 
Many foreigners and native Christians were massacred, and 
the German minister was killed. The allied armies of Eng- 
land, Germany, France, Japan, Russia, and the United States 
soon restored order, but in making a permanent settlement of 
the Chinese question a difference of opinion arose. Eussia, 
Germany, and France were eager for the partition of China 
among the foreign powers, or at least for compelling her 



406 RECENT EVENTS [1904 

to make increased concessions of territory. England, Japan, 
and the United States took the ground that the Chinese should 
keep their own land and government, and that foreign nations 
should be content with the right to trade, — the li open door " 
policy, as it is called. 

Eussia had sent soldiers into Manchuria to protect her rail- 
way interests there, but agreed that they should soon leave. 
She did not keep her agreement. Her military occupation 
of that province and her apparent intention to absorb Korea 
also, brought her into conflict with Japan, whose interests in 
Korea and China were thus threatened. Japan began war 
early in 1904, and in a few weeks gained command of the sea 
in that part of the world, by destroying many of Russia's war 
ships. England, by a treaty made with Japan in 1902, stands 
pledged to support her in maintaining the " open door " and 
the integrity of China. 



APPENDIX. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: IMPORTANT EVENTS AND 
DATES IN ENGLISH HISTORY. 
The Roman Period, 55 b. c-410 a. d. 

Caesar's first invasion . . 55 B. c. 

Claudius begins conquest of Britain 43 a. d. 

Revolt of Boadicea 61 

Agricola builds line of forts 81 

Hadrian's Wall begun 121 

Romans leave Britain 410 

The Anglo-Saxon Period, 449-1066. 

First Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain 449 

Augustine preaches in Kent 597 

Church Council of Whitby 664 

First invasion of the Danes '. 787 

Death of Egbert, first king of all England 839 

Reign of Alfred the Great 871-901 

Peace of Wedrnore 878 

Massacre of Danes in England 1002 

Danish Conquest of England 1013-6 

Canute becomes king 1016 

Edward the Confessor becomes king 1042 

Battle of Hastings 1066 

The Norman Period, 1066-1154. 

William I 1066 

Charter granted to London 1066 

Hereward defeated at Ely 1071 

Landholders swear allegiance to William 108G 

William Rufus 1087 

The king robs the church of its revenue 1094 

Henry 1 1100 

The first charter of liberties granted 1100 

Normandy conquered at Tinchebrai 1106 

Princess Matilda marries Geoffrey Plantagenet .... 1128 

Stephen 1135 

Civil war begins 1139 

Treaty with Henry Plantagenet 1153 

Niver — 25 i 



ii APPENDIX 

The Plant agenet Period, 1154-1399. 

Henry II 1154 

Payment of scutage established 1160 

Constitutions of Clarendon 1164 

Murder of Becket 1170 

Strongbow's invasion of Ireland 1170 

Circuit judges appointed 1178 

Richard 1 1189 

Third crusade 1190-1194 

John 1199 

Battle of Bouvines 1214 

The Great Charter 1215 

John's war with the barons and death 1216 

Henry III 1216 

The Charter confirmed 1216 

The Friars land in England 1221 

Coal mines opened .~ 1234 

Battle of Lewes 1264 

De Montfort's Parliament 1265 

Battle of Evesham 1265 

Edward 1 1272 

Statute of Mortmain 1279 

The Conquest of Wales 1282^ 

Jews driven from England 1290 

Model Parliament 1295 

Confirmation of Charters 1297 

Scotland conquered 1296-1304 

Edward II . 1307 

Battle of Bannockburn 1314 

Edward deposed and murdered 1327 

Edward III 1327 

Independence of Scotland admitted 1328 

Woolen manufacture introduced 1331 

House of Commons becomes a distinct body 1333 

Hundred Years' War begun 1337 

Battle of Crecy 1346 

Capture of Calais 1347 

The Black Death 1348-9 

Staples (market towns) established 1354 

Battle of Poitiers 1356 

Peace of Bretigny 1360 

Richard II. . 1377 

Revolt of the peasants * 13S1 

Chaucer begins the " Canterbury Tales " 1384 

Henry Bolingbroke returns to England 1399 

Parliament chooses Henry king 1399 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



in 



The Lancastrian Period, 1399-1461. 

Henry IV I399 

Revolt of Glendower 1400 

Battle of Shrewsbury 1403 

Henry V 1413 

Battle of Agincourt 1415 

Treaty of Troyes 1420 

Henry VI 1422 

Siege of Orleans 1428-9 

Joan of Arc burned 1431 

Jack Cade's Insurrection 1450 

End of Hundred Years' War 1453 

Wars of the Roses begin; battle of St. Albans 1455 

Battles of second St. Albans and Towton 1461 

The Yorkist Period, 1461-1485. 

Edward IV 1461 

Warwick restores Henry VI 1470 

Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury 1471 

Death of Henry VI. in the Tower 1471 

Caxton prints the first book in England 1477 

Edward V.; murdered 1483 

Richard III . 1483 

Battle of Bosworth ; end of Wars of the Roses 1485 

The Tudor Period, 1485-1603. 

Henry VII 1485 

Court of Star Chamber 1487 

Laws against retainers 1487 

First voyage of John Cabot 1497 

Henry VIII 1509 

Battle of the Spurs and battle of Flodden 1513 

Wolsey becomes chief minister 1515 

Beginning of Protestant Reformation in Germany .... 1517 

Henry makes himself Supreme Head of the English Church . 1531 

Death of Sir Thomas More 1535 

Dissolution of the monasteries 1536-9 

Edward VI 1547 

Battle of Pinkie 1547 

First English Prayer Book 1549 

Act of Uniformity 1549 

The Forty-two Articles 1552 

Grammar schools and hospitals founded 1552-3 

Mary 1553 

Wyatt's rebellion; Lady Jane Grey executed 1554 

Reconciliation with the Pope 1554 

Loss of Calais 1558 



iv APPENDIX 

Elizabeth 1558 

Protestantism restored 1559 

John Knox preaches in Scotland 1559 

Mary Stuart lands in Scotland 1561 

Thirty-nine Articles 15G2 

Slave trade begun by Hawkins 1562 

Drake's great voyage 1577-80 

Raleigh sends first colony to Virginia 1585 

Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots 1587 

The defeat of the Armada 1588 

East India Company chartered 1600 

Conquest of Ireland completed 1603 

The Stuart Period, 1603-1689. 

James I . . 1603 

Hampton Court Conference 1604 

Founding of Jamestown 1607 

Death of Shakespeare 1616 

Execution of Raleigh . 1618 

Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth in America . . . . 1620 

Charles I 1625 

The Petition of Right 1628 

Wentworth sent to Ireland as Deputy 1633 

Laud made Archbishop of Canterbury 1633 

Hampden refuses to pay ship money 1637 

Long Parliament meets 1640 

Execution of Strafford 1641 

Civil War begins at Edgehill 1642 

Cromwell's Ironsides organized 1642 

The Solemn League and Covenant 1643 

Marston Moor 1644 

Naseby ' . 1645 

Execution of Charles 1 1649 

The Commonwealth 1649-1653 

Cromwell in Ireland 1649-1650 

Battle of Dunbar 1650 

Battle of Worcester 1651 

Blake's battles with the Dutch ......... 1652-3 

Cromwell dismisses the Long Parliament 1653 

The Protectorate 1653-1660 

Death of Oliver Cromwell; Richard Cromwell Protector . . 1658 

Charles II., the Restoration 1660 

Second Dutch War 1664-7 

The Plague in London 1665 

The Great Fire in London 1666 

Secret treaty of Dover 1670 

Third Dutch War 1672^ 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE v 

The Test Act . ' . 1073 

Habeas Corpus Act 1079 

Rise of Whigs and Tories 1080 

Town charters revoked 1083-4 

James II 1085 

Monmouth's Rebellion 1085 

Trial of the Seven Bishops, June 1088 

William of Orange lands in England, November .... 1088 

William III. and Mary II 1089 

The Bill of Rights 1089 

Mutiny and Toleration Acts 1089 

War of the Palatinate 1089-97 

Battle of the Boyne 1090 

Battle of La Hogue 1092 

Bank of England founded 1094 

Freedom of the press - 1095 

Act of Settlement 1701 

Anne 1702 

War of the Spanish Succession ........ 1702-13 

Battle of Blenheim 1704 

Gibraltar taken 1704 

Union of England and Scotland 1707 

The Hanoverian Period, 1714- 

George I 1714 

Jacobite Rebellion in Scotland 1715-10 

Septennial Act 1710 

South Sea Company and others fail 1721 

.Walpole prime minister; rise of the Cabinet .... 1721-12 

George II 1727 

War of Jenkins's Ear begins 1739 

England in War of the Austrian Succession 1744-48 

Second Jacobite Rebellion in Scotland 1745-40 

Battle of Culloden 1740 

" New Style " calendar adopted 1752 

French and Indian War 1754-03 

The Seven Years' War 1750-03 

William Pitt (the elder) in power . 1757-01 

Clive wins the battle of Plassey 1757 

Capture of Quebec 1759 

George III 1700 

The Stamp Act 1765 

Watt invents the condensing steam engine 1705 

Prison reform begun by John Howard • • 1774 

Port of Boston closed 1774 

American Declaration of Independence 1770 

Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga 1777 



vi APPENDIX 

Gordon riots 1780 

Surrender of Cornwallis 1781 

Treaty of Versailles ; United States independent .... 1783 

French Revolution begun 1789 

Battle of the Nile 1798 

Union of Great Britain and Ireland 1800 

Peace of Amiens 1802 

Battle of Trafalgar 1805 

Slave trade abolished 1807 

War with the United States 1812-11 

Battle of Waterloo 1815 

George IV 1820 

Repeal of Corporation and Test Acts 1828 

Catholic Emancipation 1829 

William IV 1830 

Opening of Liverpool and Manchester Railroad 1830 

Passage of the Reform Bill 1832 

Slavery abolished in British colonies . . . . . . . 1833 

Monopoly of East India Company abolished ...... 1833 

New poor law 1834 

Victoria 1837 

Chartist agitation 1837-48 

The Opium War 1839 

Penny postage established 1840 

Famine in Ireland 1845 

Repeal of the Corn Laws 1846 

First World's Fair 1851 

Crimean War 1854-5 

The Indian Mutiny 1857 

Government of India taken from East India Company . . . 1858 

Second Reform Act 1867 

Canadian Federation 1867 

Irish Church disestablished 1869 

Public schools established 1870 

Irish Land Act 1870 

Victoria proclaimed Empress of India 1877 

Third Reform Act 1884 

Sudan War 1884-5 

Queen's Jubilee 1887 

Jameson Raid * 1896 

Sudan recovered 1898 

War with the Boer Republics 1899-1902 

Edward VII 1901 

Irish Land Act 1902 



BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. 



Source Books: C. W. Colby, Selections from the Sources of Eng- 
lish History (Longmans, N. Y.). E. Kendall, Source Book of Eng- 
lish History (Macmillan, N. Y.). G. C. Lee, Source Book of 
English History (Macmillan). 

General Works: J. F. Bright, English History, 4 vols. (E. P. 
Dutton & Co., N. Y.). E. P. Cheyney, Industrial and Social His- 
tory of England (Macmillan, N. Y.). J. A. Froude, History of Eng- 
land, 12 vols. (Scribner, N. Y.). S. R. Gardiner, Student's History 
of England (Longmans, N. Y.) ; Atlas of English History (Long- 
mans). J. R. Green, A Short History of the English People (Ameri- 
can Book Company) ; Readings from English History (Harper, N. 
Y.). Guest and Underwood, Handbook of English History (Macmil- 
lan). David Hume, History of England (Student's Series, Ameri- 
can Book Company). J. Lingard, The History of England (Mur- 
phy, Baltimore). H. D. Traill, Social England, 6 vols. (Putnam, 
N. Y.). 

Special Works: A. J. Church, Story of Early Britain (Putnam, 
N. Y.). E. A. Freeman, Old-English History (Macmillan, N. Y.). 
S. O. Jewett, Story of the Normans (Putnam). W. Stubbs, The 
Early Plantagenets (Longmans, N. Y.). M. Creighton, The Tudors 
and the Reformation (Longmans) ; Age of Elizabeth (Longmans). 
E. J. Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen (Oxford). E. E. Hale, 
Fall of the Stuarts (Longmans). T. B. Macaulay, History of Eng- 
land from the Time of James II., 3 vols. (Longmans). E. E. Morris, 
The Age of Anne (Estes, N. Y.). J. McCarthy, A Short History 
of Our Oivn Times, 2 vols. (F. A. Stokes, N. Y.). W. S. Churchill, 
London to Ladysmith (Longmans). J. R. Seeley, The Expansion of 
England (Little, Boston). J. Hight, The English as a Colonizing 
Nation (Whitcombe & Tombs, London). G. E. Bolen, Plain Facts as 
to the Trusts and the Tariff (Macmillan). E. Lawless, Story of 
Ireland ( Putnam ) . 

Government: Acland and Ransome, A Handbook in Outline of 
the Political History of England to 1896 (Longmans, N. Y.). E. S. 
Creasy, Rise and Progress of the English Constitution (Appleton, N. 
Y.). Louise Creighton, The Government of England (Longmans). 
T. F. Moran, The English Government (Longmans). 

Biography: T. Hughes, Life of King Alfred (Macmillan, N. Y.). 
Agnes Strickland, The Queens of England (American Book Com- 
pany). Alice Green, Henry the Second (Macmillan). M. Creigh- 
ton, Simon de Mont fort (Longmans, N. Y.). R. H. Blades, Caxton 
(Hardwicke, London). Goldwin Smith, Three English Statesmen 
(Pym, Pitt, and Cromwell) (Macmillan). C. H. Firth, Cromwell 
(Putnam, N. Y.). J. Morley, Walpole (Macmillan). W. Besant, 
Captain Cook (Macmillan, N. Y.). W. C. Russell, Nelson (Putnam). 
G. Russell, Life of Gladstone (Harper, N. Y.). 

vii 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



Key to pronunciation : a in late, a in senate, a, in fat, a in care, a in far, a in last, a in fall, 
a in final ; e in me, e in event, e in met, e in term, e in recent ; i in fine, i in tin ; 6 in note, 
o in obey, 6 in not, 6 in for, oo in loop, 6"6 in bdok ; n= ng, in its effect on the preceding vowel, 
but is itself silent ; u in tune, u in nut, u in rude, u in full, u in burn, u= French u„ 



Aboukir Bay (a-bo"6-ker') 330 

Acadia 271 

Acre (a'ker) 85 

Addington, Henry 334 

Addison, Joseph 281 

Aetius (a-e'shi-us) 25 

Afghanistan (af-gan-is-tan') . . . 365, 382 

Aghrim (ag'rim) 268 

Agincourt (a-zhaN-koor') ...... 13T 

Agriculture .... 171, 174, 191, 201, 320 

Aids ............. 61 

Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-pel'), treaty of 292 
Akbar Khan (ak'ber kan) „ . . . . . 365 

Alabama claims . . 377 

Albert, Prince Consort . . 359, 360, 367, 376 

Al'bi-on 13 

Alexander 1 332 

Alfred the Great . . . 39-46 

Algiers (al-jerz') . . . . «, ... . 234 
American colonies, 199, 211, 212, 217, 240, 
253, 254, 261, 290, 291, 302-307, 309-315 
Amiens (a-ine-aN'), treaty of . . . . 333 
Amusements, time of Elizabeth . 201, 202 

Anderi'da . 29 

Angles 26-28, 32 

An'gle-sey ........... 21 

Anglican Church, see Church of England. 
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . 38,' 45, 62, 71, 72 

Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 31, 32 

Anglo-Saxons 26-35 

Anjou (aN'zhoo) 71, 73, 83 

Anne, Queen 249, 273, 274 

Anne of Cleves (klevz) 170 

Anselm 66, 68 

Anti-Corn-Law League 366 

Antoni'nus 23 

Appeals to the Pope 169 

Aquitaine (ak-we-tiin ') . . . . 73,120,121 
Arabi Pasha (a-ra'be pa-sha') .... 384 

Archer, Thomas . . . . 157 

Archery, English . 108,116 

Arcot(ar-kot'), siege of .... 300,301 

Ar-gyle', Earl of 285 

Ark'low 334 

Arkwright, Richard ........ 322 

Arma' da, the Great 192 



Armagnac (ar-man-yak") „ 137 

Arthur, Duke of Brittany . . . . 90, 91 

Arthur, King .31 

Arthur, son of Henry VII ..... 160 

Articles 172, 175 

Attainder, act of 221, 267 

Au'gustine 34 

Australia 364, 402 

Austria 272, 292, 341, 351 

Austrian Succession, War of the . . . 292 

Bacon, Francis 200, 201, 207 

Bacon, Boger 101 

Ba'donHill 31 

Bakewell, Eobert 320 

Balaclava (ba-la-kla°va) .... 368-370 

Balance of power 165, 271 

Bal'four, Arthur J 404 

Baliol (ba'li-ul), Edward 114 

Baliol, John 105 

Ball, John ........... 127 

Ballot Act 380 

Baltic, battle of the . . 331 

Baltimore, Lord 240 

Bank of England . 269 

Bannockburn, battle of ... . 110, 111 

Barba'dos 240, 241 

Barebones' Parliament ...... 236 

Bar'net, battle of 148 

Barons' War 98 

Battle Abbey 54 

Bavaria 275 

Bayeux tapestry (M-ye ') 53, 54 

Baylen (bi-lan') . .. . „ 340 

Beachy Head, battle of 268 

Beau'fort, Jane 136 

Becket, Thomas a . 80, 81 

Bede (bed), the Venerable ..... 33 

Benedict, Saint ......... 34 

Benevolences ........ 149, 159 

Big'od, Boger 98 

Bill of Eights ... 263 

Bishops, the seven 259, 260 

Bishops' Wars, the 220, 221 

Black death 118, 119 

Black Prince 117, 120, 121, 123 



Vlll 



INDEX 



IX 



Blake, Eobert „ . 234 

Blenheim (blen'lm) ........ 275 

Blockade runners . 377 

Blois (blwa) . . , . 71 

Bloody Assizes ......... 257 

Blore Heath, battle of .145 

Blucher(blii'ker). ........ 343 

Bo-a-di-ce'a ......... 21, 22 

Board Schools 378 

Boer Wars (boor) ...... 383, 387-390 

Boleyn (bdol'in), Anne ...... 167 

Bolingbroke (bdl'in-brdok), Henry 130-136 

Bombay' 243 

Book of Common Prayer ...... 175 

Bordeaux (bor-do') ........ 121 

Bosworth, battle of ....... . 154 

Bothwell, Lord ......... 187 

Boulogne (bdo-lon') 336 

Bouvines (boo-ven'), battle of .... 91 

Boyle (boil), Eobert 282 

Boyne (boin), battle of the 268 

Braddock, General . 304 

Bradshaw, John ......... 231 

Brahe (bra), Tycho ........ 282 

Braose (bra-oz'), William of . .... 93 

Bretigny (bre-ten-yi'), peace of . . . .121 

Bret'walda . . . . 32 

Bridgewater, Duke of 321 

Bright, John . 366 

Brindley, James 321 

Britain, early races in . . . . . 9, 11, 13 
British Empire ........ 399-403 

British Isles 10 

Britons 13, 14-20, 32 

Bronze Age . 12, 13 

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett .... 395 

Browning, Eobert 395 

Bruce, David 113, 121 

Bruce, Eobert 109,110,111 

Bruges (bru'jez) 115, 125 

Buckingham (buk'ing-am), Henry Staf- 
ford, Duke of 151-154 

Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke 

of ... 209, 214, 215 

Bunker Hill, battle of 313 

Bunyan, John . 244 

Burgh, Hubert de 97 

Burgoyne (bur-goin') 313 

Bur'gundy, Duke of 135, 139 

Burns, Eobert Ill 

Bury St. Edmunds ....... 93, 94 

Butter, Nathaniel . 281 

Byng, Admiral 304 

Byron, Lord 347, 351 

Cabal', the 247, 248 

Cabinet 398, 399, 278, 284, 285 



Cabots, the ........... 161 

Cade, Jack 144 

Ca'diz ............ 214 

Caerleon (kiir-le'un) ....... 81 

Caesar, Julius ......... 14-20 

Calais (ka-la') ...... 117, 125, 181 

Calcut'ta, Black Hole of ... . 301, 302 

Cal'vin, John .......... 186 

Calvinists 195 

Canada 307, 362, 402 

Canals 320, 321 

Canning, George. ..... 339, 340, 352 

Canon Law 219 

Canterbury, Archbishop of . . . . .79 
" Canterbury Tales " ..... 123,124 

Canute (ka-niit') 48 

Cape Colony ........ 383, 402 

Capital and labor ...... 392-394 

Carac'tacus 20 

Car'adoc 20 

Carlyle (kar-hT), Thomas ..... 396 

Carnar'von 104 

Carolinas 253 

Carr, Eobert 208 

Cartwright, Edward 322 

Carver, John .......... 211 

Cassivelau'nus 16 

Castles 43, 56, 71, 77, 157 

Caswal'lon ........... 16 

Catesby, Eobert 206 

Catherine of Ar'agon . .160,162,167,168 

Catherine of Bragan'za 243 

Catholic Emancipation Act ..... 350 
Catholics, English . . . 194, 213, 214, 350 
Cato Street conspiracy ........ 349 

Cavalier Parliament 244 

Cavaliers' . 224, 240 

Cav'endish, Thomas 199 

Cawnpur (can-poor') ....... 372 

Caxton, William . 150 

Cecil (ses'il), Eobert 203 

Cecil, Sir William 184 

Celts (see Britons, and Scots) . . , 13, 14 

Cet-e-wa'yo • 383 

Chaluz (sha-lus') ......... 87 

Chancellor, Eichard 198 

Char'ing Gross 103 

Chariots, British war 18 

Charles L, 208-210, 213-215, 217-221, 225-229 
Charles II. . .' . . 233, 239, 242-244, 248 
Charles V.. German emperor . . 163, 169 

Charles VI., King of France 135 

Charles X. of France . 354 

Charles, Archduke of Austria . . . .271 
Charles, son of James Edward .... 292 

Charters, Confirmation of 107 

Charters, town ....... 85, 251 



INDEX 



Chartists . . . 360, 361 

Chau'cer, Geoffrey „ 123, 124 

Chev'y Chase, Ballad of ...... 129 

China, wars with . . . 363, 373, 374, 405 

Chivalry 88 

Church, early 25, 34, 69, 79, 80 

Church of England, 

169, 172, 175, ISO, 183, 194, 205, 222, 252 

Churchill, John 274-278 

Churls 27 

Civil War, American 376, 377 

Civil War, English 225-228 

Clare, Eichard de 82 

Clarence, Duke of 148, 150 

Clar'endon, Constitutions of .... 80 
Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of . . 245 

Clau'di-us 20 

Claverhouse (kla'verz) .... 255, 265 

Clive, Eobert 299-302 

Cloth, manufacture of . . . 124, 197, 2S0 

Cobden, Eichard 366 

Coeur de Lion (ker de le-ON 1 ) .... 87 

Coinage 197, 270 

Coke, Sir Edward 209 

Col'chester 21 

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 347 

Col'et, John 165 

Cologne (ko-lon') 125 

Colonial policy 312, 317, 399 

Colonies, government of ... . 399, 402 

Colum'ba, Saint 36 

Columbus 160 

Commerce, see Trade. 

Commonwealth, the 231-236 

Compurgation 44, 45 

Conquests of England 54,55 

Conventicle 244 

Convention Parliament .... 243, 244 

Copenhagen 331 

Corn Laws 345, 366, 367 

Cornwal'lis 315 

Coronation chair 107 

Corun'na, battle of 341 

Cor'yat, Thomas 211, 212 

Count of the Saxon Shore 23 

Covenant 220, 226, 227, 255 

Covenanters 221, 252, 255 

Cranmer, Thomas . . . 168, 169, 175, 180 

Crecy (kra-se'), battle of 116 

Cri-me'an War 367-371 

Criminal law 294, 345, 349 

Criminals 175 

Croft, James 320 

Crompton, Samuel 322 

Cromwell, Oliver .... 227, 228, 231-238 

Cromwell, Eichard 238 

Cromwell, Thomas 168, 170 



Crusades 67, 84-86 

Crystal Palace 367 

Cullo'den, battle of 293 

Cumberland, Duke of 358 

Cy'prus 313 

Danes 38, 39, 40-43, 47, 48 

Darnley, Lord 187 

Darwin, Charles 396 

Declaration of Independence .... 313 
Declaration of Indulgence . 248, 258, 259 

De Foe, Daniel 281 

De'i-ra 33 

Delaware 254 

De Lesseps' 382 

Delhi (del'e) 299 

Denmark 272, 331 

Despensers, the 112 

Det'ting-en, battle of 292 

Dickens, Charles 395 

Directory, French 325 

Dispensing power . - 258 

Disraeli (diz-ra'li), Benjamin, Lord Bea- 

consfield 366, 381 

Dissenters 194, 205, 244 

Divine right of kings 204 

Domesday Book 62 

Dom'inic, Saint 100 

Domremi (doN-ra-me') . ....... 141 

Dost Mohammed (dost mo-ham 'ed), 365, 366 

Dover, secret treaty of 248 

Drake, Sir Francis .... 190, 191, 195 

Drog'heda 231, 233 

Druids ........... 19, 21 

Dunbar', battle of 233 

Duncan, Admiral . . •. 32S 

Dun 'kirk 235, 245 

Dunstan , . 47 

Dupleix (dii-pla') 299 

Duquesne (du-kan') Fort 302 

Dutch Wars "... 233, 234, 245, 246, 248 

Duty, export 103 

import . . 214, 255, 318, 365, 366, 367 

East India Company, 

199, 211, 241, 299, 357, 358, 373 

Eastern Question 363, 381 

Eddington, battle of 41 

Edgar 47 

Edgehill, battle of 226 

Education Acts . 378, 405 

Edward the Confessor 48 

Edward the Martyr 47 

Edward 1 99-109 

Edward II 109-112 

Edward III 113-123 

Edward IV 146-148 



INDEX 



XI 



Edward V 150-153 

Edward VI 173-176 

Edward VII 404-406 

Edwin, Earl 51, 58, 59 

Edwin, King of Northumbria .... 35 

Egbert 37-39 

Egypt 382, 384, 3S7 

Eleanor of Castile 102, 103 

Eleanor of France 73, 83 

Eliot, Sir John . 214, 216 

Elizabeth .... 182-185, 190, 193, 197 

Emma of Normandy 48, 49 

English Church, see Church of Mi gland. 
English race ....... 9,32,38,91 

Eras'mus 165, 166 

Established Church, see Church of England 

Eth'elbert 34 

Eth'elred 1 40 

Ethelred II 47, 48 

Evesham (evz'ham) . .99,100 

Excommunication 92 

Factory legislation . . . o . . 357, 393 

Factory system 391-393 

Fairfax, Lord .......... 227 

Fairs - 103, 125 

Falkirk, battle of . 108 

Farming improved .... 171, 201, 320 

Fawkes (faks), Guy 206, 207 

Fealty ." 62 

Federation of employers 393 

Federation of unions 392,393 

Fenian movement 878, 379 

Feudal system 62 

Field of the Cloth of Gold 165 

Fitzwalter, Kobert 95 

Flanders 115, 197 

Flemish in England ........ 197 

Flodden Field, battle of 163 

Forests . , 62, 218, 222 

Foth'eringay Castle 188 

France, wars with, 83, 90, 91, 96, 114-118, 120, 
121, 126, 137-142, 163, 181, 214, 215, 235, 
264, 265, 268-279, 292, 299-307, 314, 327-344 

Francis I., King of France 165 

Francis, Saint 100 

Frederick the Elector ..... 208, 212 

Frederick the Great 305 

Freeman, Edward Augustus .... 396 
French and Indian War .... 305-307 

Friars • .... 100 

Frob'isher, Martin 199 

Froude (frood), James Anthony . . . 396 

Gael 13, 23 

Galile'o 282 

Garter, Order of the 118 



Gascony 107 

Gaul 14, 16, 17, 19 

Gav'eston, Piers 109, 110 

Genoa (jen'6-a), trade of 126 

George 1 284, 2S5 

George II 289-292 

George III 30S-315, 346 

George IV 348, 354 

Georgia 291 

German Empire 380 

Germanic races 26, 27, 28 

Ghent (gent), treaty of 344 

Gibbon, Edward 347 

Gibraltar (ji-bral'ter) 277, 402 

Gladstone (glad' stun), William Ewart, 

379, 380, 3S5-387 
Glendower (glen 'door), Owen . - . . . 134 
Gloucester (glos'ter), Kichard, Duke of, 

150-154 
Gloucester, Thomas, Duke of . . 128-130 

Gloucester, Eobert, Earl of 73 

Godwin, Earl 48 

Goldsmith, Oliver , . . 347 

Gordon, General 384, 385 

Gordon Eiots 315,316 

Government 396-403 

Grand Alliance 272 

Grand jury 7S 

Grand Kemonstrance 223 

Great Britain 11, 277 

Great Charter 93-95 

Great Council, Norman 64 

Great Fire 246, 247 

Great Plague 246 

Greece 351 

Greg'ory the Great 33, 34, 45 

Gregory VII 63 

Grenville, George .... 308, 309, 310 

Grenville, Sir Richard 195, 196 

Grey, Lady Jane 177, 180 

Guienne (ge-en') 121 

Guilds 45,100,124,126 

Gunpowder 157 

Gunpowder plot 206 

Guthrum (gooth'room) ..... 41, 43 

Ha'be-as Corpus Act 250 

Ha'drian, Wall of 23 

Haidarabad (hi-dar-a-bad') ' 314 

Hal'idon Hill U3 

Hampden, John 214, 219, 226 

Hampton Court Conference 205 

Han'over 279, 292, 35S 

Hanover, House of 284 

Han-se-at'ic League 125 

Har'dicanute 48 

Har'drada, King of Norway . . , .51,52 



Xll 



INDEX 



Har 'greaves, James 321 

Harold 1 48 

Harold II 49-53 

Harold Har'drada 51, 52 

Hasting, the Dane 43 

Hastings, battle of 52-54 

Hastings, Warren 316 

Havelock (hav'e-lok), General .... 373 
Hawkins, Captain John .... 189, 195 

Hengist (heng'gist) 29 

Henry 1 65, 68-70 

Henry II 73-84 

Henry III 96-97, 100 

Henry IV 130-133, 135, 136 

Henry V. . 137-139 

Henry VI 140-145, 148 

Henry VII 153-161 

Henry VIII 162-172 

Heretics 133 

Her'eward 59, 60 

High Church party 194, 216, 277 

High Commission Court .... 194, 222 

Hill, Rowland 362 

Hoche (osh), General 333 

Holland, 189, 233, 234, 245, 246, 248, 275, 298 

Holy Alliance 351,352 

Horn 'ildon Hill, battle of 134 

Hongkong' 363 

House of Commons, 
64, 65, 121, 126, 136, 396-398 ; see Reform 

Howard, Admiral 192, 195 

Howard, Catherine 170 

Howard, John 296 

Hume, David 347 

Hundred Tears' War, 114-121, 126, 137-142 
Huxley, Thomas 396 

Impeachment 143 

Independents 228 

India, 199, 243, 299-302, 316, 330, 371-373, 402 

Indian Mutiny 371-373 

Industrial revolution 391 

Innocent III 92 

Instrument of Government 236 

Interdict 92 

Inventions, mechanical . 321, 322, 352, 353 

Ireland 23, 196 

union with England 334 

famine 366 

reforms in 379, 380, 386, 404 

Isabella of France 112, 113 

Italy 161, 163, 166, 351 

Jac'obites 264, 285 

Jamaica 241,402 

James 1 203-212 

James II. . . . 249-253, 255-261, 268, 271 



James, Prince of Scotland . . . 135, 136 

James Edward 279, 285 

Jameson's raid 388 

Japan, war with Eussia 406 

Jeffreys, Judge 257 

Jenkinson, Anthony 199 

Jenkins's Ear, War of 290, 291 

Jennings, Sarah 278 

Jes'u-its 191 

Jews S5, 104, 238, 375 

Joan of Arc 140-142 

Johannesburg (yo-hiin'nes-burg) . . . 388 
John, King of England . 83,84,86,90-96 

John, King of France 120 

John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, 

121, 122, 128, 129 

Johnson, Samuel 347 

Judges, the king's 77 

Junius 319 

Jurors 45 

Jury trial 78 

Justiciar 89 

Jutes 29 

Kabul (ka'bul), retreat from . . . .365 

Kandahar' 382 

Ken'ilworth Castle 146 

Kent 29 

Ket, Eobert 176 

Khartum (kar-toom') 384 

Kim'berley 389, 390 

King, compared with President . 398, 399 

King George's War 292 

King William's War 271 

King's judges 77 

Kings Mountain, battle of 314 

Kitchener, General 387, 390 

Knighthood „ . 87, 88 

Knight's fees 61 

Knox (n6ks), John 186 

Kruger (kru'ger), President 388 

Labor, organization of 392 

Laborers, statute of 119 

Ladysmith 389, 390 

La Hogue (la hog'), battle of . . . .268 

Lake School of Poetry 347 

Lancaster (lang'kas-ter), John of Gaunt, 
Duke of ...... 121,122,128,129 

Lancaster, House of 133 

Land Acts, Irish ...... 380, 385, 404 

Lan 'franc 64 

Langland, William 122 

Langton, Stephen 91, 92, 96 

La Eochelle (la ro-shel') 215 

Laud, William 216, 219, 222 

Layamon (la'ya-m5n) 100 



INDEX 



Xlll 



Learning 1 , the New 166 

Leicester, (les'ter), Earl of ..... 189 
Leipzig (Hp'sik), battle of . . . . . . 342 

Le'opold, Duke of Austria 85 

Lewes (lu'Is), battle of 98 

Lexington, battle of 313 

Ligny (len-ye'), battle of 343 

Lincoln (ling'kun), battle of .... 73 

Lisle (111), Alice 257 

Literature, English, 123, 200, 281, 346, 394-396 

Little Parliament 236 

Llewellyn (ldo-el'lin) „ 104 

Local Government Law 386 

Loch Lev'en (16k) 187 

Lollards . 127, 136, 137 

London . . . 21, 32, 56, 125, 224, 226, 251 
London Company ....... 210, 211 

Londonderry 267 

Long Parliament 221, 235, 239 

Loom 322 

Lords Ordainers m H2 

Louis IX. of France 98 

Louis XIV. of France . „ . . 25S, 272, 324 

Louisburg 292 

Low Church party 277 

Lii'beck 125 

Luck'now 373 

Luther, Martin .......... 166 

McAdam 354 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington .... 396 

Madras' 299 

Ma-fe-king' 389, 390 

Mag'na Charta (kar'ta) 93-95 

Mahrattas (ma-rat'taz) ..... 316, 330 

Maid of Norway 105 

Maju'ba Hill, battle of ....... 384 

Malcolm (mal'kum), King of Scotland . 60 
Malplaquet (mal-pla-kii') ...... 276 

Manchester Massacre ....... 34S 

Manorial system 119 

Manufactures, beginning of . . 124, 197, 280 
domestic system of ... . 322, 391 

Margaret of A njou 142,146,148 

Marlborough (mal'bur-o), John Church- 
ill, Duke of 274-278 

Marston Moor 227, 228 

Mary I 1T6-180 

Mary II 249 

Mary of Guise (gez) 186 

Mary Queen of Scots 186-191 

Maryland . . . ....... . 240 

Massachusetts 217, 240 

Massena (ma-sil-na') 341 

Matilda 71-73 

Mehemet Ali (m&'he-met a'le) .... 364 
Melbourne (mel burn), Lord .... 364 



Mercia 32, 50 

Methodism 294-296 

Middle Ages „ 161 

Mil'an Decree , 339 

Militia , . 43° 103 

Milton, John 244 

Minden, battle of 305 

Min iflg 11, 13, 280, 321 

Model, the new 228 

Model Parliament 107 

Monasteries 34, 98, 170, 171 

Monastic system 34 

Monk, George 227, 239 

Monmouth (mon'muth), James Stuart, 

Cuke of 251, 256, 257 

Monopolies 197 7 218 

Mon-roe' Doctrine 352 

Mont 'fort, Simon de .... 98, 99, 100 

Moore, Sir John 341 

More, Sir Thomas 165, 169 

Mor'kar, Earl 51, 59 

Mor'timer, Roger 112, 113 

Mortimer's Cross 145 

Mortmain, Statute of 103 

Murshidabad (moor-shed-ii-bad ') . . . 302 

Mutiny Act 264 

Mutiny at Spithead and Nore .... 32S 
My-sore' 314, 330 

Na'mur 269 

Nantes (nants), edict of 258 

Napo'leon . . . 325-330, 338, 339, 342, 344 

Napoleon III 375 

Naseby (naz'bi), battle of 228 

Nationalists 385 

Navigation Laws 234, 352 

Nelson, Horatio 327,337,338 

Netherlands, 188, 189, 271, 272, 275, 276, 279, 
327 ; see Holland, and Dutch 

Nev'ille's Cross, battle of 117 

New Forest . 62, 67 

New Jersey 253 

New Netherland . 246 

New Or'le-ans, battle of 344 

New York 246 

New Zealand 364, 402 

Newcastle (nu'kas'l), Duke of . . 291, 304 

Newspapers . 281 

Newton, Sir Isaac 282 

Ney (na), Marshal 342 

Nicolas, Czar of Russia ...... 370 

Nightingale, Florence 370 

Nile, battle of the 330 

Non-jurors . . 264 

Norfolk (nor'fak), Duke of 191 

Norfolk, Earl of 107 

Norman Great Council ...... 64 



XIV 



INDEX 



Norman kings 56 

Normandy 49, 69, 91 

North, Lord 312, 315 

Northampton, battle of 145 

Northumberland, Earl of 134 

Northumberland, John, Duke of . . . 176 
Northum'bria 35,52,59 

Oates (ots), Titus .... 249, 250, 255 

O'Connell, Daniel 350 

O'glethorpe, James 291 

Ohio Land Company 302 

Oldcastle 137 

Open door policy 406 

Opium War 363 

Orange Free State .... 383, 388, 390 

Ordeal 44, 45, 78 

Orders in Council 339 

Or'le-ans, Duke of . 135 

Orleans, siege of 141, 142 

Or'mu-lum 100, 101 

Oswy, King 36 

Ot'terburn 129 

Oudenarde (ou'den-ar-de) 270 

Oxford 98, 226, 259 

Palat'inate, War of the . 264, 265, 267-271 

Pale, the English 130 

Palmerston (pam'er-stun), Lord . . . 375 

Paris, treaty of . . 307 

Parker, Sir Hyde 331 

Parliament . . . 396-39S, 64, 65, 122, 207 

Parr, Catherine 170 

Patrick, Saint 35, 36 

Peasant Revolt 126-128 

Peel, Sir Robert 364, 365, 366 

Peers, creation of 355 

Peking' ' 374 

Pelham (pel'am), Henry .... 291, 292 
Pelham, Thomas, Duke of Newcastle, 291, 304 

Peninsular War 340-342 

Penn, William 253 

Pennsylvania 253, 254 

Percy, Harry 135 

Percy, House of 129, 134 

Petition and Advice, the Humble • . . 237 

Petition of Right 215 

Philip II. of France .... 85, 86, 90, 92 
Philip II. of Spain .... 178, 188, 192 
Philippa of Hainault (ha-no') 113, 117, 124 

Picts 23, 26, 60 

Pilgrimage of Grace 171, 172 

Pilgrims 211 

Pinkie, battle of, 173 

Pitt, William, the Elder .... 304, 305 
Pitt, William, the Younger . . . 318, 319 
Plague, the Great . „ 246 



Plantagenet (plan-taj'e-net), Geoffrey, 73, 75 

Plantagenet kings 75, 102 

Plassey, battle of . . 302 

Plymouth (plim'uth) 211 

Plymouth Company 210, 211 

Poitiers (pwa-tyii'), battle of ... . 120 

Poitou (pwa-too') 73 

Pondicherry (pon-di-sher'ri) .... 299 

Pope, Alexander . 281 

Popish Plot 249, 250 

Portugal 275, 340, 341, 342, 351 

Postage, penny 362 

Pi-ayer Book 175 

Presbyterianism 195, 222 

President and king, powers of . . 398, 399 

Press, freedom of the 269 

Preston, battle of 229 

Prest.onpans, battle of 292 

Pretender, the Old 279, 285 

Pretender, the Young 292, 293 

Prince of Wales 104 

Printing 150 

Profit sharing 394 

Protectorate, the . . . . . . . 236, 237 

Protectorates 403 

Provisions of Oxford 98 

Prussia 342, 343, 351, 364 

Puritans 194, 216, 227, 238 

emigration to New England . . . 240 
Pym, John 214, 217, 221 

Quakers 252, 253 

Que-bec', capture of 306 

Raikes (raks), Robert 296 

Railroads 352-354 

Raleigh (ra'H), Sir Walter . 199, 200, 209-211 
Reform, parliamentary, 

345, 350, 354-357, 377, 378, 385 

Reform Bills 355, 377, 378, 385 

Reformation, Protestant . . 166, 167, 175 

Regicides, the 244 

Reims (remz) 141 

Reliefs 61 

Restoration 242 

Retainers 134, 158 

"Revenge," the 195 

Revolution, American 312-315 

Revolution, English 260, 261 

Revolution, French 324, 351 

Rhodes, Cecil 387, 388 

Richard I S4-89 

Richard II 126-131 

Richard III 150-154 

Rizzio (ret'se-6) 187 

Roads 320, 354 

Ro-a-noke' 199 



INDEX 



XV 



Eobert of Normandy . . . . . 65, 67, 69 
Roberts, General ...... 3S2, 390 

Eobertson, William 347 

Romans in Britain ....... 20-24 

Rome 14, 10, 24 

Rom 'illy, Sir Samuel . 345 

Rotten boroughs ..... 312, 318, 319 
Rouen (rOo-iiN'), siege of .... 138,139 
Round Table, Knights of the .... 31 

Roundheads 224 

Royal Exchange 198 

Royal Society 282 

Rump Parliament . . . 229, 235, 236, 239 

Run'nymede 95 

Rupert, Prince 225, 226, 227 

Russell, Lord John .... 350, 351, 355 

Russell, Lord William ....... 252 

Russia, 198, 338, 341, 342, 304, 367, 370, 405, 406 
Rye House plot ......... 251 

By s' wick, peace of ....... . 270 

Sacheverell (sa-shev'er-eT), Dr 278 

St. Albans (al'banz), battles of . 144, 145 
St. He-le'na" ........ 344, 402 

St. Yincent, battle of 327 

Saladin 84 

Salisbury (salz'ber-i), Lord . . . 386, 404 

Sa-voy' . . . 275 

Saxon kings 37 

Saxons 26-32 

Schools .... 45, 175, 176, 294, 378, 405 
Scotland, 60, 105, 108, 110, 111, 129, 186, 277 

Scots of Ireland 23, 26, 60 

Scott, Sir Walter 346 

Scrooby .211 

Scu'tage .......... 61, 78 

Scutari (skoo'ta-re) • 370 

Sebas'topol 368 

Sedgemoor, battle of 257 

Self-government .'"... 27, 28, 126, 386 

Sen 'lac Hill 52 

Separatists ........... 194 

Sepoy Rebellion ....... 371-373 

Septennial Act . . . 2S6 

Serfs or villeins 119, 128 

Settlement, Act of . . 272 

Seven Tears' War ...... 305-307 

Seymour (se'mor), Jane ...... 170 

Shaftesbury, Lord .... 243, 250, 251 

Shakespeare, William 11, 200 

Sheriff 44, 77 

Sher-iff-muir', battle of ...... 285 

Shield money ......... 61, 78 

Ship money ...... 218, 219, 222 

Shrewsbury, battle of .... . 134, 135 

Sidney, Algernon ........ 252 

Sidney, Sir Philip 189 



Simnel, Lambert ........ 159 

Slave ........... 27, 119 

Slave trade ........... 189 

Slavery abolished ......... 357 

Slidell', John .......... 377 

Smith, Adam .......... 317 

South Africa Company ...... 388 

South African Republic ...... 383 

South Sea Company 286, 287 

Spain . . 184, 188-195, 20S, 209, 271, 290, 291 
Spanish Succession, War of the, 271, 274-277 

Spencer, Herbert 396 

Spenser, Edmund 200 

Sphere of influence ........ 403 

Spinning jenny 321 

Spurs, battle of the 163 

Stamford Bridge, battle of ..... 51 

Stamp Act 309, 310 

Standard, battle of the . . . . . . 72, 73 

Staples 125 

Star Chamber Court . . . 158,220,222 

Steam engine 322, 323, 324 

Steelyard „ . 125 

Stephen 71-73 

Stephenson, George 353 

Stone Age 12 

Stone of Destiny ......... 106 

Stonehenge (ston'henj) 19 

Strafford, Earl of .... . 217, 220, 221 

Straw, Jack .127 

Strikes ............ 392 

Strongbow 82, 83 

Stuart, House of 203 

Succession, Act of ........ 169 

Sudan (soo-dan') 384,385,387 

Suetonius (swe-to'ni-us) 21, 22 

Suez' Canal 382 

Suffolk, Duke of 143 

Suffrage, the . . 311, 350, 356, 378, 380, 385 

Supremacy, Act of 169 

Surajah (sot>-ra'ja), Dow'lah 301 

Surat (soo-raf) ......... 299 

Sweden 272, 331, 332 

Sweyn (swan) 48 

Swift, Jonathan 281 

Tab'ard Inn . 124 

Tacitus (tas'i-tiis) 26-28 

Talavera (ta-la-va'rii) ....... 341 

Tariff, or duties, 103, 214, 255, 318, 365-367 

Tasma'nia 364 

Taxes, 61, 78, 95, 108, 127, 136, 215 ; see Duty. 

Tea tax 311 

Tel-el-Kebir (ke-ber'), battle of. . . . 384 

Tennyson, Alfred 394 

Test Act 249 

Tewkesbury, battle of .... . .148 



XVI 



INDEX 



Thack'eray, "William Makepeace . . . 395 

Thames (temz) 16 

Thane 44 

Thirty-nine Articles 175 

Thirty Years' War 166, 167 

Thorough, policy of 220 

Thralls 27 

Thurstan 72 

Til' sit, treaty of 338 

Tippoo' Sahib (sa'heb) 330 

Tobacco 211 

Toleration Act 264 

Tone, Wolfe 333 

Tory 250, 251 

Tos'tig 51 

Tournament 88, 89 

Tower of London 56, 131 

Town meeting and officers . . .27, 28, 44 

Towton, battle of 145 

Trade . . 160, 2S0, 289, 290, 297, 298, 318, 339 

effect of crusades on 86 

with the East 212 

Trade combinations 393, 394 

Trades unions .......... 392 

Traf-al-gar' . 337 

Transportation .... 320, 321, 352, 353 
Transvaal (trans-val') .... 383, 388-390 

" Trent " affair „ . 376 

Triennial Act 286 

Troyes (trwa), treaty of ..... . 139 

Trusts .......... 393,394 

Tudor, House of 156 

Tun'ge-mot 27, 28 

Tyler, Wat . 127, 128 

Tyndall, John .......... 896 

Ty-rone', Earl of 196 

Uniformity, Act of . . . . . . . .175 

Union with Ireland, Act of .... . 334 

Union with Scotland, Act of 277 

United Irishmen 333 

United States . . . 315, 344, 352, 376, 377 
Utrecht (u'trekt), peace of . . . 279, 290 

Vagrant Act .......... 174 

Van Tromp, Admiral ....... 234 

Venice, trade routes of .... 126, 164 

Versailles (ver-salz'), treaty of ... . 315 

Victoria ....... 359, 360, 3S6, 390 

Vill 44, 119 

Villeins and villenage 119, 128 

Villeneuve (vel-neV) ..... 336, 337 

Villiers (vil'lerz), Charles 366 

Villiers, George, Duke of Buckingham, 

209, 214, 215 

Vimeiro (ve-m&'e-ro'o) . 340 

Vinegar Hill 833 



Vittoria (vSt-to're-a), battle of . . . .842 
Vor'tigern . . . • 28, 29 

Wagram (va 'grain), battle of . . . .341 

Wakefield, battle of 145 

Wales 31, 104, 134 

Wallace, William 108 

Walls, Eoman 23 

Walpole, Sir Eobert 2S5, 288 

Walter, Hubert 89 

WaroflS12 344 

Warbeck, Perkin . 160 

Wars of the Eoses .... 143-148, 154 
Warwick (wor'ik), Earl of . . . 146-148 

Washington, George 302, 313 

Waterloo', battle of 343 

Watt, James 322, 323 

Wedmore, peace of ...... . 41-43 

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, 

330, 340, 341, 343, 351, 357 
Wentworth, Thomas . . . 217, 220, 221 
Wesley, John ........ ?94-296 

Wesleyan movement ....... 296 

Wessex 31, 32, 39 

Westminster Abbey .... 58, 97, 161 

Wexford 233 

Whig 250, 251 

Whitby, council at ........ 36 

"White Ship" 70 

Whitefield (whit'feld), George . . 294, 295 

Wilberforce, William 319 

Wilkes (wilks), John 311,312 

William I. ......... 50, 57-65 

William II. . . 65-67 

William III. ....... 249, 262-272 

William IV 354-35S 

Winthrop, John 240 

Wit'an 44 

Wit'e-na-ge-mote 44, 64 

Wolfe, General 306 

Wolseley (woolz'li), Sir Garnet . . .384 
Wolsey (w<561'zl), Thomas . . . 165, 167 

Woodville, Elizabeth 147 

Wool 115,143,197 

Worcester (woos'ter), battle of ... . 233 

Wordsworth, William 347 

World's fair, first 367 

Wren, Sir Christopher 247, 270 

Wyatt's Eebellion 178, 179 

Wyc'lif, John 122 

York, House of 146 

York, James, Duke of ... . 249-253, 254 
York, Eichard, Duke of .... 143, 145 

Zulu (zoo 'loo) War 383 

Zut'phen, battle of . 189 



H 66 89 










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